Some of us get salt cravings once in a blue moon whilst for others it’s a commonly occurring craving. It may express itself as an overwhelming desire for ready-salted chips, salty popcorn or even olives. With others you may find yourself salting everything in sight! Either way, what does craving salty foods say about you?

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Possible causes of salt cravings

Behind every craving is a story. All cravings are your body’s way of telling you something. So what is a salt craving telling you?

There are many possibilities for what a salt craving means and nine possible causes are discussed below. In every particular person’s case there may be one or more factors driving the body’s call for salt.

1. Salt cravings may indicate that your recent salt intake is lower than usual

If you’re consuming less salt than your body is used to, you may experience salt cravings. For example, if you’re used to eating 4 teaspoons of salt a day (which could well happen even if you aren’t aware of it because there is so much hidden salt in many foods), and you have a day when you’ve only had 1 teaspoonful, you may start craving something salty. This happens regardless of the fact that 1 teaspoon of salt a day is more than enough to meet our body’s requirements for sodium.

What happens here is that over years of eating a high-salt diet, the body and tastebuds become accustomed to a certain amount of salt. When this habitual (albeit excessive) salt intake is not met, your body notices this and lets you know by creating a craving. It’s a bit like needing a “salt fix” and indeed some do call this type of craving a side effect of “salt addiction”.

Treatment for salt cravings of this kind:
You can retrain your body to get used to eating lower-salt diets. During the adjustment period, salt cravings often occur, but if you don’t give in to them, eventually the body gets used to lower salt levels and stops creating such frequent salt cravings. (1)

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2. Stress increases salt cravings

Researchers have found that craving salt could be a sign of stress. (2,3)

How can stress cause salt cravings? It seems that the connection is that both salt-levels and stress are largely controlled by the adrenal glands. The adrenals produce several hormones including the stress hormones (adrenaline and cortisol) and also the salt-controlling hormone, aldosterone.

There are a few possible theories about how stress may boost salt cravings:

• Theory 1: Normally, your adrenal glands produce aldosterone when your body needs to conserve sodium because aldosterone’s role is to prevent sodium from being lost in your urine.  Stress stimulates the adrenal glands to produce stress hormones, but in the process of activating the adrenals, stress also stimulates the production of other hormones. Stress and anxiety have been found to increase aldosterone production. (4) This likely means that the more stressed you are, the more aldosterone you have in your body, and so the more sodium it retains. My theory is that a similar process occurs to that when people are accustomed to a high salt intake in their diet. It may be possible that the body gets used to a higher stress-caused sodium-level. In someone who is often under stress, when there is a pause in life’s stresses, their sodium levels decrease beneath their customary elevated levels. The body may notice this drop and try to return it to that high usual state by getting you to eat more salt, thereby creating salt cravings.
• Theory 2: Consuming high levels of salt are known to reduce stress hormone levels. (5) It’s possible that in an attempt to return the body to a calmer state, the body creates salt cravings to reduce the stress hormone levels. What’s more, elevated sodium levels in the blood were found to increase the production of another hormone, oxytocin which is a powerful anti-stress hormone. (5)
• Theory 3: In constant stress the adrenal glands are continuously being worked very hard to produce more and more stress hormones. There comes a point when the adrenal glands become tired and although the need for adrenal hormones still exists, they can no longer produce them as we need because they are simply exhausted. This state is called adrenal exhaustion or adrenal fatigue resulting in adrenal insufficiency, and it means that amongst other adrenal hormones, aldosterone production is reduced. With aldosterone no longer able to retain sodium levels in the body, your body excretes more sodium than usual, which means you need more sodium than usual to maintain your body’s needs. Salt cravings occur to compensate for all the sodium the body’s low aldosterone levels are unable to keep hold of.

A good clue that stress may be a driving force behind your salt cravings is if you live a fast-paced, hectic life, or if you have a tendency to worry, or if you notice that you crave salt in direct response to a stressful activity.

Treatment for salt cravings of this kind:
Taking care to be as relaxed as possible should eliminate salt cravings if this is the driver behind the craving. Exercise, meditation, conscious thinking, and utilizing other relaxing activities can only be beneficial in any case.

If you are under a lot of stress you can help nourish your adrenal glands and ease the physiological stress on your body by eating plenty of protein, vitamin C, vitamin B5 and magnesium.

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3. Other adrenal problems behind salt cravings

Whilst stress can put some strain on the adrenals, potentially generating salt cravings, other adrenal problems also create salt cravings. These conditions include the rather rare Addison’s disease where your adrenals are unable to make aldosterone, meaning that you are unable to retain salt and as a result you constantly have salt cravings. (6) Note that this is rare and is unlikely to be behind most people’s salt cravings.

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4. Loss of sodium and other electrolytes causing salt cravings

There’s a group of minerals called the electrolytes, and sodium is within this group. The reason these minerals are lumped together is because they have common functions and they are often also lost from the body together. There are several ways you can lose electrolytes:

• Electrolyte loss in sweat: Electrolyte loss can actually be seen in people who have perspired profusely. It’s seen as white salty rings under arms or on backs and is most visible on dark clothes where sweat salts have precipitated. In extreme cases heavy sweating can lead to dehydration, and for this reason some books say that dehydration causes salt cravings.
• Electrolyte loss through vomiting
• Electrolyte loss through diarrhoea.

People who have lost electrolytes through prolonged episodes of any electrolyte-depleting conditions may crave salt as their body is calling to replenish their electrolyte stores. (7) After a serious bout of any of these conditions, it may be helpful to have an electrolyte-rich supplement such as Allergy Research Balanced Electrolyte Concentrate and remember to also top up your body’s fluid levels by drinking water.

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5. Other mineral deficiencies can manifest as salt cravings

In nature, unrefined salt is not only a source of sodium, it also contains many other minerals. Some say that unrefined natural sea or rock salt contains up to 60 different minerals. (8) Our cravings for salty flavors may therefore reflect a deficiency and a need in your body for any one of these minerals that occur naturally in salt. (9)

To solve any potential mineral deficiencies, you can ensure you eat a wholesome diet full of mineral-rich, unrefined, unprocessed, fresh foods. Make sure you substitute any salt you do use to a more mineral-rich unrefined salt like Himalayan salt and Celtic Sea Salt. You can also supplement your diet with a good multivitamin-mineral complex like Nature’s Plus: Source Of Life or Natures Plus Nutri-Genic Multi for Sensitive People.

Particular mineral deficiencies that may lead to salt cravings include:

• Magnesium (2)
• Calcium
• Zinc
• Iodine – Iodine is needed to make thyroid hormones, and low thyroid hormone levels (often caused by low iodine levels) have been correlated with salt cravings. (2) A good source of iodine is a small amount (a few short strips) of rehydrated wakame seaweed which you can add to any dish including soups, vegetables and salads.

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6. Low moods, Low serotonin and low protein levels may lead to salt cravings

Some researchers have noticed that low levels of “happy hormone”, serotonin, increase cravings for salt. Serotonin is a proteinaceous hormone, so consuming inadequate amounts of protein may mean that insufficient amounts of serotonin are made. This can contribute both to low moods and salt cravings. (2, 10)

Why would low serotonin levels trigger salt cravings? The answer to this is not clear but one possible connection may be that salt appears to have an anti-depressant effect by triggering off pleasure zones in the brain. The exact mechanism is yet to be elucidated but salt does seem to stimulate production of another “happy hormone” called oxytocin. (5)

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7. Oestrogen and progesterone hormone changes may cause salt cravings

It has been noticed that salt cravings are particularly common in women at certain points of their menstrual cycles (usually during the luteal phase (11,12)) and also in pregnant and breast-feeding women. (13) It therefore seems that levels of oestrogen and progesterone affect salt cravings, and that elevated hormone levels are correlated with increased salt cravings. (11, 14, 15)

The mechanism by which these hormones affect salt cravings still requires further research but Verma et al. hypothesize that “besides the direct effect of hormones on salt appetite there could be indirect effects of oestrogen on salt appetite through opioid receptors while that of progesterone is by affecting the membrane fluidity and flux of ions that may cause increased sodium requirement and its appetite.” (11)

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8. Salt cravings may indicate a Kidney imbalance

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), certain flavours are linked to particular organs. (Note that TCM organs are not the same as our Western organs with their anatomy and functions differing). The organ connected to salty flavors is the TCM Kidney, so a salt craving can indicate a TCM Kidney imbalance. The main emotion contributing to a TCM Kidney imbalance is fear. Problems with the TCM Kidney also manifest as issues with reproductive health, bone health, hair health, ear health and urinary health, so if you have any problems in these areas concurrent with a chronic salt craving, you may benefit from visiting a TCM practitioner.

In rare cases, a salt craving may also indicate conventional medicine kidney problems too. One uncommon kidney disorder called Bartter syndrome that is usually diagnosed in childhood, has salt cravings as one of its symptoms.

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9. Salt cravings may indicate Water Element Imbalances or Sacral Chakra imbalances

On the less scientific, ancient-traditional-medicine side of things, there is the meaning of salt cravings according to Five Elements Theory and Chakra Theory. The TCM Kidney is associated with the element of Water, and Water is associated with the Sacral Chakra. Tying all these together, Minich (2009) suggests that salt cravings may point to imbalances in the Sacral Chakra. (16) An imbalanced Sacral Chakra can manifest in behaviours like inflexibility, not “going with the flow” and feeling stagnant, a tendency to repress or control your feelings, or simply not being in touch with feelings, senses and sexuality. There is a theory that food cravings may occur in Sacral Chakra imbalances because people are unable to express their emotions and feelings, so the feelings leak out as other expressions such as physical food cravings. Other Sacral Chakra issues include having trouble with setting boundaries and experiencing blocks in creativity. One of the most common things that can cause sacral chakra imbalances is stress. (17)

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Related Products

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References
(1) Editors of The Wellness Letter. 1995. The New Wellness Encyclopedia: The Best-Selling Guide to Preventing Disease and Maintaining Your Health and Well-Being. University of California, Berkeley. Mariner Books; Rev Upd edition
(2) Braverman & Braverman 2009. The Amazing Way to Reverse Heart Disease Naturally: Beyond the Hypertension Hype: Why Drugs Are Not the Answer. Basic Health Publications.
(3) Stutman. F. 2006. One hundred weight-loss tips that really work. McGraw-Hill; 1 edition.
(4) Venning EH, DyrenfurthY I, Beck JC. 1957. Effect of anxiety upon aldosterone excretion in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 17 (8): 1005–8.
(5) Brouker S. 2011. Salt cravings signify stress. University of Florida Health Science Center News & Communication
(6) ) Owen. 1980. Sodium-restricted Diets and the Use of Diuretics: Rationale, Complications and Practical Aspects of Their Use. Nat. Academy of Sciences, US
(7) Blackburn RE, Samson WK, Fulton RJ, Stricker EM, Verbalis JG. 1993. Central oxytocin inhibition of salt appetite in rats: evidence for differential sensing of plasma sodium and osmolality. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Nov 1;90(21):10380-4.
(8) Rosenthal J. 2007. Integrative Nutrition: Feed Your Hunger for Health and Happiness. Integrative Nutrition Publishing; 1 edition
(9) (9) Pitchford P. 2003. Healing with whole foods: Asian traditions and modern nutrition. North Atlantic Books; 3 Rev Upd edition
(10) Sharma AM et al 1993. Effect of dietary salt restriction on urinary serotonin and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid excretion. Man. Journal of hypertension. 11: 1381-86
(11) Verma et al. 2005. Salt preference across different phases of menstrual cycle. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2005; 49 (1) : 99–102
(12) Frye CA, Demolar GL.1994. Menstrual cycle and Sex Differences Influence Salt Preference. Physiol and Behav 55: 193–197.
(13) Brown JE, Toma RB. 1986. Taste changes during pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr. 43: 414–418.
(14) Denton DA, Nelson JF. 1978. The control of salt appetite in wild rabbits during lactation. Endocrinology 103: 1880–1887.
(15) Kare M, Fregly MJ, Bernard RA, 1980. Biological and behavioural aspects of salt intake. New York : Academic Press: 248–272.
(16) Minich D. 2009. Chakra Foods for Optimum Health: A Guide to the Foods That Can Improve Your Energy, Inspire Creative Changes, Open Your Heart, and Heal Body, Mind, and Spirit. Conari Press
(17) Lilly & Lilly 2010. Crystal, Color and Chakra Healing: How to harness the transforming powers of crystals, colour and your body’s own subtle energies to increase health and well-being. Southwater

If you were to break a human body down to its raw constituents you’d find that we’re mostly made of water. About 45-60% of lean body weight is water.² If you work it out, a 70kg man would contain within his body 42 liters of water! This makes it clear that water plays an important part in our bodies, but what exactly does it do?

Uses of water

1.)    Water is needed to help transport things around the body:
Several transport systems exist in the body that utilize water:

- Flow of blood:
The main transport system in the body is the blood which is composed largely of water. The water in the blood system is needed to carry the flow of oxygen, nutrients, immune cells and signalling molecules like hormones to cells and tissues, and to take away wastes, toxins and dead cells.
Keeping the blood flowing is important for many reasons including:

a.) To keep raw materials for energy production arriving at cells to maintain high energy. Insufficient flow of nutrients can lead to feelings of low energy and fatigue.

b.) To wash toxins and wastes away so that they don’t build-up to cause problems.

c.) To keep the blood at the right consistency which is important for heart health. If the blood becomes thicker, as can happen with severe dehydration, it is more effort for the heart to push it around (as there is more friction and resistance if the substance is thicker), and this increases the risk of  hypertension and heart disease.³

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) “blood stagnation” is a common contributor to disease and is thought to contribute to blood clot formation. You can look for TCM blood stagnation by looking at your tongue and nails, where a purple colouration indicates stagnant blood flow.

- Flow of lymph: Lymph is another body fluid consisting largely of water. Lymph uses water for the transport of immune cells, so water is important for good immune health.

- Flow of digestive juices: In the digestive system, water plays a role in the transport of material through the gut. Having enough water is important in preventing constipation and in maintaining good digestion.

- Flow of substances between cells: The water found in the extracellular fluid around the body cells acts as a transporting medium through which cells can signal to one another via sending and receiving certain biochemicals. This gives your body the ability to respond well to stimuli.

2.)    Water is needed to fill cells out and to keep them with the right shape and turgidity.

66% of the body’s water is within cells. This helps maintain cell and tissue structure in tissues like the brain or in muscles which contain a large amount of water.
Water is even a small part of bone tissue, and studies have found that consuming enough water helps reduce the risk of osteoporosis.
A clear example of a tissue where water is seen to play a role in maintaining its structure is in the skin. Too little water and your skin can be dry and the risk of wrinkles is increased.

3.)    Water is required for temperature regulation
Sweating is one of our key ways of cooling down to maintain healthy body temperature, and sweating is reliant on the presence of water. Insufficient sweating could make us overheat.

4.)    Water is needed for lubrication of body organs
Water lubricates, cushions and protects various organs:

- Lubrication of joints: Water helps bones move smoothly past one another at joints. A lack of water around joints can increase the risk of friction which can increase the risk of arthritis.

- Lubrication of the eyes: Water not only helps the eyeballs move around, but it also washes away dust and other particles that may enter the eye and obstruct vision.

- Lubrication of the spinal cord helps protect and cushion it. A lack of water around the spinal cord can result in back pain.

- Lubrication of the foetus: Water plays a similar protective role when present in the amniotic sac of a foetus in the womb.

5.)    Water in the body allows minerals to exist in their ionic state

Water provides a medium in which minerals can become ions, and this is important because minerals need to be in ionic form in order to carry out their jobs in the body. To illustrate this point, solid salt crystals act very differently to sodium and chloride ions in solution. The same is true inside the body.

Keeping minerals in their dissolved state is important to prevent problems like kidney stones and the uric acid stones found in gout, so drinking plenty of water is crucial in avoiding conditions like this.

6.)    Water helps in chemical reactions in the body:
There is a reaction called hydrolysis where water is used and broken up to help break up other molecules. (hydro = water ; lysis = breakdown).
One of the key areas where chemical reactions depend on water is during digestion where water provides the medium in which enzymes break down food molecules. Digestion-linked water is found in saliva, gastric juices and intestinal juices.
Chemical reactions are not exclusive to the digestive system. They can occur anywhere in the body so the cells need a medium to bathe in to allow for chemical reactions to take place. For example, enzymatic reactions throughout the body depend on a fluid medium to occur properly.

7.)    Water helps dilute toxins, acids and alkalis:

Some toxins are made within the body as by-products of our metabolism (like urea for example), whilst others are ingested (like pollutants and certain food chemicals e.g. alcohol). Water is used to dilute their dangerous effects.
Water also dilutes acids and alkalis to help ensure that the body is at the correct pH.
Several conditions benefit from the diluting power of water:

- Alcohol excess: Drinking water before, during and after alcohol dilutes its effects.

- Carcinogens: The diluting power of water may explain partly why a high intake of water has been associated with lowered risk of colon and bladder cancer.

- Heartburn-causing substances: Dilution also may explain why drinking water can alleviate heartburn which has been caused by certain food molecules you ate.

- Gout: Gout is another condition that benefits from the diluting effect of water. Gout occurs when a substance called uric acid is in excessively high concentrations in the body, and diluting it with water, and thereby encouraging its passage out of the body in the urine, can help.

- Headaches and migraines: Sometimes headaches and migraines are caused by excessive toxins or inflammatory molecules floating around in the blood. If you dilute these with more water intake, it can help alleviate the pain.

- Skin health: When the body has excess toxins, naturopathic theory suggests that they build up in the skin, where they can then create spots. The more water there is to dilute the toxins. the lower the risk that toxins will cause spots. Even skin conditions like psoriasis can benefit from drinking enough water.

- Diluting toxins can help lose weight: One theory has suggested that when the body’s toxins are dealt with by dilution, they are excreted via the kidneys in the urine. This puts less of a load on the liver for detoxifying them, leaving the liver free to metabolise fat, and this may promote fat elimination.

Note: Although water helps dilute toxins, the ideal would be that there are minimal toxins present in the first place. Prevention is always better than cure.

8.)    Water helps generate the power that drives our nervous system

Water together with mineral ions contained within it, generate a hydroelectric voltage across cell membranes which is used to drive impulses through our nervous system. Insufficient water may affect nervous function.

9.)    Water sometimes acts like glue in the body:
In certain situations the body uses water as a type of glue, to stick particular solid parts of cell structures together. You can see this effect on some level if you create a small water puddle on a table, and then put a ruler on the puddle. Try to pry the ruler off and you’ll see it sticks a bit.

10.)    Water is needed to be consumed in order to replace the losses:
Water is lost through sweating, urination, exhalation and even some in the faeces. It’s important to replenish these losses to enable water to carry out all the above functions.

Another minor benefit of water is that if you’re drinking certain mineral water brands, it provides a small amount of minerals like calcium, magnesium, sodium and copper. When buying mineral water, check out the label and you’ll often see there are traces of these. The best waters are those that are high in magnesium (>20mg per liter) and calcium (>50mg per liter), and low in sodium (<10mg per liter) and in nitrates (<5mg per liter).

How much water do we need? Recommended Water Intake:

As a rough guide, most nutrition sources say 6-8 glasses of water a day is the recommended water intake.

If you want to get slightly more technical and accurate, your fluid needs can be calculated according to your individual body weight. The formula is:

35ml water  x your body weight in kg = milliliters of water you need a day

So, say a woman weighs 60kg, she’d need 2.1 liters a day (35 x 60 = 2100ml), which equates to about 8 glasses of water a day (if 1 cup contains 250ml). The more you weigh, the more water you’ll need.

Apart from body weight, several other factors may increase your water needs, including consumption of diuretics (e.g. alcohol, caffeine), being in hot and/or dry environments, and being highly physically active. The more active you are, the more water you need to replace that lost in sweat. For athletes the formula changes to:

42ml water x body weight in kg = milliliters of water needed daily

Why do I have to drink water rather than other forms of fluids?

Water is the most sublime choice of fluid to hydrate with because it has no calories and hydrates you with minimal effort needed (e.g. no digestive-processing or liver detoxing is required to process water). Other drinks are often sugary, contain caffeine, artificial chemicals, sweeteners or other potentially problematic chemicals which means that they do other things than just hydrate the body. Sometimes these other drinks or fluids occupy the body’s resources unnecessarily, drawing energy and materials away from more useful activities.

The only other drinks that are good to hydrate with are certain herbal teas.

Can you ever drink too much water?

Yes. Too much of *anything* can be harmful.

Your kidneys can only get rid of water at a rate of about 1 liter an hour, so if you drink more than 1 liter in an hour, it means that you start to accumulate more body fluids than you can eliminate.  To illustrate why this is a problem, let’s look at a balloon as an analogy for your body: What happens when you force water into a balloon at a faster rate than it can leak it out of a pinhole? The balloon starts to expand and if filled up with enough water, it can burst. In short, excess water is not just a health hazard for balloons, it can also be dangerous for humans. So steer clear of any water-drinking competitions where you have to glug down more than a liter in one go. People have died at these types of competitions.

But it’s important to remember that drinking too much is very rare and water intoxication is not something you are going to experience from sensible water consumption. So drink your 6-8 glasses a day to maintain optimal health, but make sure you spread out your water consumption over the course of your day.

Related Products

Related Articles
See our other nutrition articles including:
- Carbonated Water: Is Fizzy Water Bad for You?
- Is saturated fat bad for you?
- Why do I need fiber?
- Why do I need iodine?
- Why do I need zinc?
- Why take supplements?

References

1. Glenville. 2006. Fat Around The Middle: How To Lose That Bulge – For Good. Kyle Cathie

2. Kumar & Clark 2005. Kumar and Clark’s Clinical Medicine. Saunders Ltd. 6 edition

3. Chan et al. 2002. Water, Other Fluids, and Fatal Coronary Heart Disease The Adventist Health Study Am. J. Epidemiol. 155 (9): 827-833.

Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and Zazzle. If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

We have all heard plenty of times that fiber is good for us because it keeps our bowels regular. But is this all we need fiber for? Are there other benefits of fiber? As it turns out, yes. There are many!

But before we start going into the benefits of fiber, it’s important to note that there are different types of fiber and that they have slightly different roles and therefore benefits. The main groups of fiber are:

• Soluble fiber, which includes fibers like gums, mucilage, pectin, Beta glucans, Resistant starch and resistant oligosaccharides. When found in foods, these are usually soft, slimy and mucilaginous and are found in foods like fruits (e.g. figs, apricots, prunes) , vegetables (e.g. okra, green peas, green beans), whole grains (e.g. barley, oats), and legumes (e.g. beans).
• Insoluble fiber, which includes cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose. When found in foods these are generally harder and rougher than soluble fiber, and are found in foods like nuts, seeds, whole grains (e.g. wheat) and the bran of grains, (e.g. wheat bran)

Insoluble fiber is beneficial but it only has one main benefit: It bulks up the stool. And this is beneficial because it helps train your gut muscles, keeping them strong so that you can have smooth and regular bowel movements, enabling you to eliminate wastes that could otherwise be harmful if allowed to build up (as discussed in Why do I poop?). Soluble fiber however has a few other interesting benefits:

Benefits of Fiber

1.) Fiber delays gastric emptying (i.e. it slows down food release from the stomach)

Studies have shown that some soluble fibers (like pectins and guar gum) slow down release of food from the stomach. In medical jargon we say they delay gastric emptying.^1-4

Why is this a benefit? For several reasons:

(a.) Delayed gastric emptying helps with sugar balancing

If sugar is released slowly from the stomach rather than all at once, it means that there isn’t a huge spike of sugar levels after a meal, but instead a more sustained trickle of sugar giving a prolonged source of energy. This is particularly useful for people who suffer from blood sugar imbalances like diabetics, insulin-sensitive people and people who experience frequent hypoglycaemia.

Fiber’s role in sugar balancing is also beneficial in reducing the risk of certain diseases linked with sugar imbalances. High sugar levels in the blood increase the risk of inflammation, oxidation, tissue damage by glycosylation and cardiovascular disease, to name but a few.

(b.) Delayed gastric emptying helps keep you fuller for longer

People trying to lose weight can benefit from the effect of delayed gastric emptying because if your stomach is full for longer, it increases satiety. As a result, you don’t feel as hungry and you are less likely to snack on unhealthy things between meals, or have another meal a short time after finishing the last. Nestle’s breakfast cereal, “Shreddies”, banked on this benefit of fiber by using the slogan “Keeps hunger locked up till lunch!” as seen in the attached video.

Note: Although I recognize Shreddies as a source of fiber I am not promoting them as a recommended source of fiber because they are made of whole grain wheat, a common ingredient that people are intolerant to.

The sugar-balancing and insulin-modulating effect that delays gastric emptying can really help with weight management.

2.) Fiber Lowers cholesterol

Numerous studies have found that some soluble fibers can lower cholesterol (most notably fiber in oats, psyllium and flaxseeds).^5-9

How does fiber decrease cholesterol? It seems that the mechanism is not fully understood but hypotheses include:

• Fiber may help bind cholesterol and cholesterol-derivatives (like bile) in the intestines. Binding prevents its reabsorption into the body and helps to package it off for elimination in the faeces. Because our body needs the presence of bile in the intestines to aid digestion, the removal of bile via fiber-binding encourages more bile to be made in the liver from cholesterol, so that you use up more of your body’s stores of cholesterol. This cycle repeats as long as you have a good fiber intake with bile being excreted and more being made to replace it. The result is a reduction in cholesterol levels in the body.
• Although we can’t break down soluble fiber, our gut bacteria can. They digest them into new byproducts like short-chain-fatty-acids, which are absorbed into the body and may reduce cholesterol levels by possibly inhibiting cholesterol production in the liver.
• Fiber may decrease the gut’s absorption of raw materials like fat from which cholesterol can be made.
• Fiber decreases “transit time” of the stool in the intestine. The less time the stool is in the gut, the less time there is to reabsorb the cholesterol byproducts (bile).

Via lowering cholesterol, soluble fiber is also good for cardiovascular and heart health.

3.) Fiber soothes an irritated gut

The smooth, soft, mucilaginous and moist soluble fiber should be soothing to an irritated or inflamed gut wall. Sufferers of inflammatory gut disorders like ulcerative colitis may therefore benefit from soluble fiber.

Note: This is one benefit of soluble fiber which is a polar opposite to insoluble fiber. Insoluble fiber is harsh and irritating to the gut wall and should be avoided in people with sensitive guts.

4.) Fiber promotes elimination of waste

Like insoluble fiber, soluble fiber also helps the passage of the stool. Whilst insoluble fiber creates the bulk of the stool, soluble fiber enhances the water-capacity of the stool, helping to keep it at a softer, smoother texture that is easier to pass.

Eliminating waste properly is really important for a number of reasons as discussed in the article Why do I poop?.

5.) Fiber feeds the gut bacteria

Inside our guts is a whole ecosystem of helpful bacteria. One of the gut flora’s main foods is soluble fiber, so by eating it, you are feeding them, keeping them alive and well.

Why are gut bacteria beneficial to us? They help us in several ways :

• They break down certain foods that we can’t break down ourselves, releasing their nutritional content for us to utilize.
• They provide us with more energy through the byproducts of their own digestion. One such useful byproduct is the short-chain fatty acids they produce.
• They act as an immunological barrier in the intestines, strengthening our immunity in the gut by fighting off any nasty “bugs” that are around.
• They can help with gut healing and health maintenance by playing a role in normalizing the gut pH, producing food for the intestinal cells, and helping to maintain mucosal integrity. For this reason they can be helpful in inflammatory gut problems.
• They even make some vitamins for us, like vitamin K and some B vitamins.
• They boost absorption of some nutrients like calcium, magnesium and iron.^10,11

6.) Fiber helps prevent all sorts of diseases and problems

Good soluble fiber intake has been correlated with decreased risk of the following conditions: appendicitis, constipation, colon cancer, coronary heart disease, diabetes, diverticular disease, gallstones, haemorrhoids, hiatus hernia, hyperglycaemia, hypoglycaemia, varicose veins, obesity and being overweight.

How much fiber per day should you have?

It’s clear that fiber is a beneficial addition to the diet, but how much fiber do you need to reap its benefits?

The American Dietetic Association advises a daily intake of 20-35 grams of fibrous foods for all adults, and 30g or more for those with constipation. An average high-fiber food contains 3-4g fiber per 100g, whilst some like nuts and seeds can contain around 6g fiber per 100g. So if you’re incorporating high fiber foods at every meal and snack, you should be reaching your 20-35g a day. Most people do not meet this requirement without conscious awareness of the need for fiber. According to the NDNS survey, most people only consume an average of 12.6 – 15.2g fiber a day.

High fiber foods to increase include:

• vegetables, especially okra, green peas and green beans.
• fruit, especially figs, apricots and prunes
• cereal grains like wheat germ, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat,
• legumes like beans,
• nuts, seeds and their products, like nut butters, seed butters and tahini. Flax seeds are a particularly good addition to the diet. You can grind them and put them in your breakfast cereal
• algae and seaweeds.

Low fiber foods to decrease include highly refined foods (like white rice, white bread and similar white products), junk food and protein-only diets such as Atkins.

Remember to wash down fiber with a lot of water otherwise some sources of fiber can lead to constipation instead of helping to alleviate it.

Word of warning about increasing fiber intake

As just mentioned, it’s important to drink plenty of water when consuming a high fiber diet. 6-8 glasses of water a day is ideal.

Another thing to watch out for is that increasing fiber in someone who is not accustomed to eating large amounts of indigestible matter can cause bloating, gas and digestive discomfort. These side effects can be avoided if the fiber is introduced in gradually increasing amounts.

Too much fiber can also interfere with absorption of nutrients if the transit time is too fast to allow efficient absorption.

Generally the body adapts to your increased fiber intake over a period of weeks.

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Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and The Nutri Centre (for UK visitors). If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

References

1. Landin et al 1992. Guar gum improves insulin sensitivity, blood lipids, blood pressure and fibrinolysis in healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr. 56. 1061-1056

2. Holt et al. 1979. Effect of gel fibre on gastric emptying and absorption of glucose and paracetamol. The Lancet, Volume 313, Issue 8117, Pages 636 – 639, 24

3. Schwartz et al. 1982. Sustained pectin ingestion delays gastric emptying . Gastroenterology. Oct;83(4):812-7

4. Torsdottir et al 1991. A Small Dose of Soluble Alginate-Fiber Affects Postprandial Glycemia and Gastric Emptying in Humans with Diabetes. J. Nutr. 121: 795-799

5. Brown et al. 1999. Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 69(1):30-42.

6. Kelley et al. 1994. Oat bran lowers total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol but not lipoprotein (a) in exercising adults with borderline hypercholesterolemia. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 94(12):1419- 1421

7. Anderson et al. 1999. Effects of psyllium on glucose and serum lipid responses in men with type 2 diabetes and hypercholesterolemia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70(4):466-473

8. Bierenbaum et al. 1993. Reducing atherogenic risk in hyperlipemic humans with flax seed supplementation: a preliminary report. J Am Coll Nutr. 12(5):501-504.

9. Prasad et al. 2000. Flaxseed: a source of hypocholesterolemic and antiatherogenic agents. Drug News Perspect. 13(2):99-104.

10. Coudray et al. 1997. Effect of soluble or partly soluble dietary fibres supplementation on absorption and balance of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc in healthy young men. Eur J Clin Nutr. 51:375-380

11. Guarner & Malagelada 2003. Gut flora in health and disease. Lancet 361 (9356): 512–9

This four part series of articles aims to put saturated fats under the magnifying glass as we find out exactly what saturated fats are, whether there are any benefits to eating saturated fats, why we all think that saturated fats are bad for us, and what the bottom line conclusion on saturated fats is regarding whether they are good for us or not.

Let’s start off with fats in general: What is a fat?

Fats are basically molecules that are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. If you stick these chemical atoms together, it doesn’t automatically make them a fat. Case in point: these same chemical ingredients also make up carbohydrates. So what makes them become fats? The way they join up together makes the difference between carbohydrates and fats.
There are different types of fat, but most fats in the human body are made up of molecules that join up in chains called fatty acid chains. The way in which carbon hydrogen and oxygen atoms join together in fatty acid chains looks a bit like this:

It’s called a fatty ACID because of the way the oxygen binds at the end, in a formation that is known as a “carboxylic acid” group (also known as the -COOH group). The fatty acid molecules are acidic, particularly when the carbon chain is short. For example the shortest chain saturated fatty acid, acetic acid, is responsible for making vinegar acidic. (Yep! Vinegar has saturated fat in it!) The longer the chain, the more diluted the acidic carboxylic acid end so that long chain fatty acids aren’t very acidic at all.

The number of carbons in the chain varies, which means there are a lot of different types of fatty acids, depending on how long the chain is. In most foods, the chain length varies from a 2 carbon chain (acetic acid, as is found in vinegar), to 16-18 carbon atoms, and foods may even contain some fatty acids with 20-30 carbon atoms in their chains, although these very long chain fatty acids are rare and found in very small amounts in food. The top 4 most abundant fatty acid chain lengths in food are the 16-carbon (palmitic acid) which usually forms the major saturated fat in foods, 18-carbon (stearic acid), 14-carbon (myristic acid) and 12-carbon (lauric acid). Chain length drastically affects the health effects of a fatty acid. (As will be seen in Benefits of saturated fats and Why saturated fats are bad).

Looking at these individual chains a little more closely will reveal what determines whether a fat is classified as a saturated fat or not.

What is a saturated fat? In other words, what makes a fat saturated?

Very basic chemistry reveals that each carbon atom has four open positions through which it can bond with other atoms. When all four of these carbon bonding spots are occupied, the carbon in said to be “saturated” or full. If less than four atoms are joining onto a carbon atom, then you get spare bonds. What do these spare bonds do? They attach to existing bonds to form double bonds. Because there is a free bond in a carbon with a double bond, the carbon is said to be “unsaturated”.

In a fatty acid chain if all the carbon bonding spots are occupied, the fatty acid chain is said to be saturated, and this makes it a saturated fat.

Ok, but what does it mean if a fat is saturated in terms of how it looks outside of the microscope? Can I tell what it looks like when I look at food?

The answer to this question is: Sometimes. It can be hard to tell if a food contains saturated fat by just looking at it, unless you’re looking at food that is mostly made up of saturated fat, like:

• Coconut oil, where 86.5% of its fat content is saturated
• Palm kernel oil where 72% of its fat content is saturated
• Cheese, where about 65% of its fat content is saturated
• Butter, where about 63% of its fat content is saturated
• Cocoa butter where 59.7% of its fat content is saturated
• (Lard and animal fat have about 39% of it as fat content is saturated)

(I calculated these figures using the USDA National Nutrient Database)

So are there general trends in what these high saturated fat foods look like? Yes. These are as follows:

a.) Usually foods high in saturated fats are solid at room temperature

In foods that are composed largely of saturated fat and little else (i.e. little carbohydrates, protein or water content), the clues that it contains saturated fat are in its consistency. Butter, lard, cocoa butter and coconut oil are all solid at average room temperature.  However it is not a rule that saturated fats are always solid at room temperature. Short chain fatty acids for example are liquid at room temperature and it is only the medium and long chains that are solid.

When saturated fats are mixed into food, and are diluted with water and other food molecules, their solid-like state is far harder to detect. It is however often part of what thickens creamy desserts, sauces, pates, spreads and ice cream, and what gives chocolate, cheese, nut butters, cookies, and creamy candies their firmness. Not everything that is firm and hard however is a sign of saturated fat. For example crunchy vegetables are extremely low in fat. Perhaps a good indicator of saturated fat is a thick firmness together with a creamy texture.

b.) Usually if you’re eating animal flesh, it’s safe to say it contains saturated fat

All animals are made up of carbohydrates, proteins and fat amongst other building blocks. Saturated fats are very common in animals, making up 10-40% of the fat content. Any fat that comes from an animal, including milk fat and meat fat, contains saturated fats. Even fish and fish oil, usually touted for their high omega 3 levels, contain some saturated fat.

Although virtually all animal products contain saturated fat to some degree, some non-animal foods also contain saturated fats. The most common of these are the tropical oils, namely coconut oil (aka coconut butter) and palm oil (aka palm butter), and also cocoa butter. Nuts also contain some saturated fats, though in far lower levels.

For an ordered list of foods that are highest in saturated fat, you can click here: Saturated Fats in Foods: A Saturated Fat Food List

c.) Usually saturated fats are insoluble in water

For those who like playing with their food, if you chuck a knob of butter in a glass of water, you’ll notice that it floats on top when solid or when melted. This is because most fats are insoluble in water (as well as being less dense than water). Having said that, short chain fatty acids are small enough to be soluble in water.

Saturated Fats in Food: How can I find out exactly how much saturated fat is in my food?

For those of you who like a hard paper copy to rifle through rather than an internet search you can buy a copy of McCance and Widdowson’s The Composition of Foods

Otherwise, the best place you can go online to check out the saturated fat content of your food is the USDA’s National Nutrient Database which can be found here.

Type in the food you’re interested in, e.g. “haddock”, and click submit. The database will give you a list of foods similar to your entry, and you can choose the form of the food that matches your query most closely. E.g. “Fish, haddock, cooked, dry heat”. When the food composition comes up, scroll down to “Lipids” and “Fatty acids, total saturated”.  This gives you the total amount of saturated fat in the food. For example the haddock entry has 0.111g saturated fat in 100g of fish. You’ll notice that below “Fatty acids, total saturated” in the table, are a bunch of numbers: e.g. 4:0, 6:0, 8:0 etc. These numbers relate to the chain length of the fatty acid.

4:0 has 4 carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain (and the zero denotes that it has zero “spare” bonds. Ie. It denotes that the fat is saturated).
6:0 has 6 carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain.. and so on.

Seeing what type of chain-length saturated fat is in your food becomes important when looking at the hot topic of which saturated-fat-foods are bad for your health. By the time you finish reading this four part article, you should be able to tell which saturated-fat-foods are good or bad for you yourself by looking at the amount of different chain-lengths of fatty acids in your food.

Click here for part 2 of this article series which discusses why some saturated fats are good for you: Benefits of saturated fats.

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As seen in part 1 of this article series (What is saturated fat?), there are many different types of saturated fatty acids with varying chain lengths and as seen in part 2 of this article series (benefits of saturated fats), they each have slightly different benefits. It seems reasonable to reason that they each would also have varying negative side effects, and this is indeed what we find.

Negative aspects of the Short-chain saturated fatty acids

The shortest chain fatty acids are most acidic, with acetic acid (2:0) being the most acidic, which makes sense as it is the main fatty acid component of vinegar. The acidic nature of acetic acid in food when eaten in normal contexts is considered harmless. Having said that, it’s not advisable to glug undiluted vinegar down on its own as it can have acid-corrosive effects on tooth enamel, and may burn and irritate internal tissues and cells. Having it in moderation as part of a salad dressing, sauce, or diluted in water should be fine though.

To the best of my knowledge, there appear to be no negative effects from eating propionic (3:0), butyric (4:0) or caproic (6:0) acid in foods. There are only positive effects. (see link for the benefits of these saturated fats)

Negative aspects of the Medium-chain saturated fatty acids

Caprylic acid (8:0) doesn’t really have many negative side effects other than having a rancid taste which can sometimes cause nausea and gastrointestinal upset. Some people are more sensitive to caprylic acid than others. If used as an antimicrobial, the killing off of microbes can lead to what naturopaths call a “healing crisis” where the death of microbes can release chemicals into the body which can lead to headaches, nausea and other unpleasant symptoms. Working alongside a naturopath can help prepare your body before and after caprylic acid treatment to minimize negative side effects of the healing crisis. Another word of warning is that when using caprylic acid to fight gut microbes, people with a sensitive gut wall (e.g. people prone to inflammatory gut diseases like ulcerative colitis) may find that the killing off of microbes flares up inflammation. In such cases, caprylic acid should be used with caution, if at all. Aside from these effects there are no other known negative effects of caprylic acid.

There are no known negative effects of Capric acid (10:0) to health.

Lauric acid (12:0) has very few negative side effects. The only disadvantage of lauric acid is that as well as raising the “good cholesterol”, HDL, it also raises LDL cholesterol, the “bad cholesterol”. The LDL rise is small in comparison to other long-chain saturated fatty acids, and the rise is modulated by the equally significant rise of HDL, but it is an LDL rise nonetheless.¹

Data Source: Katan et al. 1994. Effects of fats and fatty acids on blood lipids in humans: an overview, Am J Cli. Nutr.; 60(suppl): lOl7S -22S.

Also, like caprylic acid, the antimicrobial effects of lauric acid may result in a minor healing crisis if not used properly.

Negative aspects of the Long-chain saturated fatty acids

The long-chain saturated fats are those which have given saturated fats a bad name. Most of the long-chain saturated fats increase LDL cholesterol, increase risk of cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis.

Myristic acid (14:0) raises LDL more than any other saturated fat, as can be seen in the graph above.^2,3 Although it also raises HDL, the LDL rise is far greater, so the net effect on blood cholesterol is certainly a negative one that increases risk of cardiovascular disease.^2,3
Other negative health effects of myristic acid are that several studies have found possible association between high myristic acid consumption and an elevation in risk of developing prostate cancer.^4,5,6

Like myristic acid, palmitic acid (16:0) also raises LDL far more significantly than it raises HDL (see the graph above), and is therefore a risk factor for heart disease too.^2,7
Palmitic acid has been associated with other negative impacts on health including increasing the risk of diabetes type 2⁸, and it may play a role in suppressing our satiety control which tells us when to stop eating, which means it may play a role in contributing to weight gain.⁹
Worryingly, palmitic acid is the number 1 most abundant saturated fat in foods, which explains why the sweeping generalization that “saturated fats are bad for you” arose. Considering that palmitic acid is the dominant saturated fat in virtually all foods that contain saturated fats, it is fairly safe to say that few such foods that are rich in saturated fats are completely good for you although some may have some benefits as well as the simultaneous negative effects. (as discussed in benefits of saturated fats).

Perhaps surprisingly, stearic acid (18:0) does not raise LDL, unlike its close family members, palmitic and myristic acid.  As seen in the graph above, it in fact lowers LDL rather than raises it! Like palmitic acid however, stearic acid intake has been correlated with types 2 diabetes risk.⁸

Longer chain fatty acids, longer than 18 carbons, like behenic acid (22:0) are not found in high amounts in food, but behenic acid has been found to increase LDL cholesterol.¹⁰

So what’s the conclusion? Is saturated fat bad for you overall?

Read on to read my Conclusion on Saturated Fats: Is saturated fat bad for you?

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References

1. Denke & Grundy 1992; Am J Clin Nutr November 1992 vol. 56 no. 5 895-898
2. Katan et al 1994.Effects of fats and fatty acids on blood lipids in humans: an overview, Am J Cli. Nutr., 60(suppl):lOl7S-22S. (via http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids2.html)
3. Mensink 1993.Am J Clin Nutr. 53(suppl):711S-714S
4. Männistö  et al. 2003. Fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer in a nested case-control study in male smokers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 12 (12): 1422–8.
5. Crowe et al. 2008. Fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids and risk of prostate cancer in a case-control analysis nested within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 88 (5): 1353–63.
6. Kurahashi et al. 2008. Dairy product, saturated fatty acid, and calcium intake and prostate cancer in a prospective cohort of Japanese men. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 17 (4): 930–7
7. Simon. 1995. Serum fatty acids and the risk of coronary heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology. 142(5):469-476.
8. Wang et al. 2003. Plasma fatty acid composition and incidence of diabetes in middle-aged adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 78(1):91-98.
9. Benoit et al. 2009. Palmitic acid mediates hypothalamic insulin resistance by altering PKC-θ subcellular localization in rodents. J Clin Invest. 2009;119(9):2577–2589
10. Cater et al. 2001. Behenic acid is a cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acid in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 73(1): 41-44.

The answer is: yes. One of the common benefits of saturated fats is that they are very stable and unreactive, and therefore are less prone to creating damaging free radicals in your body. This is good news because free radical damage can go on to cause a cascade of destruction in the body that eventually increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer amongst other conditions. This stability of saturated fats makes saturated fats the best choice of cooking fat, because it is during the application of heat that less stable fats are most prone to free radical production. Taking this into consideration, using a small amount of Coconut Oil or butter in your cooking is definitely preferable to any other unsaturated oils which are more likely to undergo free radical production.

As to the further benefits or dangers of saturated fats, it depends on which particular saturated fat you are talking about. As discussed in “Part 1: What is saturated fat?” of this 4-part article series , saturated fats are a group of fats that can vary in chain-length from 2-carbon-long fatty acid chains, to over 20-carbon-long fatty acid chains, and the effects on health differ greatly depending on the chain length.

It’s always unfair (not to mention untrue!) to generalize and lump all saturated fats together, saying they are all bad for you, or good for you. For this reason, I’ll be discussing the benefits of the individual saturated fats in your food.

Benefits of Short-chain saturated fatty acids

Short-chain and very short-chain saturated fatty acids are those that contain 2-6 carbons in their chains.

• Benefits of Acetic acid (2 carbons, ie 2:0)
  Acetic acid is the shortest chain saturated fatty acid with only 2 carbons in its chain, and it is commonly found in high amounts in vinegar, produced from the fermentation of alcohol. About 4-10% of most vinegars is acetic acid.
  Acetic acid has the following benefits to health:
  - Boosts energy: It can be used as a source of energy. Many of our cells in the gut get their energy from short fatty acids like acetic acid. The energy boost acetic acid gives the gut’s cells helps circulate blood in the gut to aid absorption of food and fluids into our bodies.¹
  - May aid absorption of our food: Acetic acid may help boost absorption of fluids, calcium and magnesium in our gut.^1,5
  - May be beneficial for cardiovascular health: Studies^2,3 have shown that acetic acid can help eliminate cholesterol^3,9, and lower blood triglyceride levels³, as well as lowering blood pressure by inhibiting an enzyme which raises blood pressure, ACE.² All these suggest that acetic acid may be beneficial for heart health.
  - May reduce blood sugar levels and therefore be helpful in management of diabetes and in people with insulin resistance. Studies have found that acetic acid inhibits the enzymatic breakdown of complex sugars into simple sugars, thus reducing the sugar hit from a meal.^2,4
  - May increase feelings of satiety and fullness after a meal⁴ thereby helping to prevent overeating and aiding with weight management.
  - May have mild antimicrobial activity: Since antiquity vinegar has been used to preserve foods, and this is because it has slight antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeasts.⁶
• Benefits of Propionic acid (3 carbons ie 3:0)
  Propionic acid isn’t found in many foods, but is found in fermented foods (e.g. fermented cheeses, particularly Swiss and Emmental cheese and fermented fish sauce); and as an additive (E-number E280) in some foods where it functions as a preservative. ^6,12 It is part of what gives fermented foods their characteristic sharp, sweet smell. If you aren’t familiar with this smell, a similar smell is that of feet and sweat because the presence of propionic acid is partly responsible for these aromas too. Propionic acid isn’t really found in most traditionally considered “high saturated fat foods”, aside from small amounts in some fermented cheeses. Here are some of the benefits of propionic acid:
  - Antimicrobial: Propionic acid has some antimicrobial activity against molds and certain bacteria which is why it is used as a preservative additive in foods, however it is used in small amounts because of its unappealing smell.
  - May aid absorption and gut movement of our food: Like acetic acid, propionic acid feeds the gut cells to give them energy to work, and aids in the absorption of some food molecules.^1,5 It also encourages the muscles of the gut to contract to help food move along and relieve constipation.^1,7
  - May be beneficial for cardiovascular health via the following mechanisms:
  a.) May reduce blood cholesterol: Propionic acid inhibits the body’s production of cholesterol.^8,9,10,11
  b.) May reduce triglyceride level in the blood: Propionic acid appears to be an effective inhibitor of fatty acid synthesis, thus having the potential to reduce blood triglyceride levels.^8,11

• Benefits of Butyric acid (4 carbons ie 4:0)
  Butyric acid is found predominantly in dairy products, especially butter (hence the name, BUTyric acid) and cheeses. Butyric acid is also the substance responsible for the smell of vomit and the not too dissimilar smell of Parmesan cheese. Butyric acid need not only be obtained through the diet because it can be made by the body. Eating fibre helps the body make its own butyric acid because gut bacteria break down fibre into butyric acid. The same is also true of propionic acid and acetic acid. In spite of its unfortunate smell, butyric acid does have several benefits to health:
  - Helps in absorption of certain food molecules: Like propionic and acetic acid, butyric acid may also play a role in helping to ensure good absorption of food particles.
  - Helps produce protective mucus in the gut: The gut wall is coated with mucus to protect it from abrasion with food particles, and from chemical corrosion from the acidic stomach contents. Where the gut is already inflamed and abraded from inflammatory bowel conditions like ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, butyric acid can help produce this protective layer to reduce irritation and inflammation.^{1, 13, 14, 15,} Butyric acid may also alleviate gut inflammation through encouraging production of other anti-inflammatory chemicals in the body.¹⁶
  The use of butyric acid in producing protective mucus can be beneficial for people with “leaky gut”, or intestinal permeability. By providing a protective mucus layer, it gives more time for the gut wall to heal if it has been abraded. Not only that, but butyric acid also encourages intestinal cell growth so that it helps them repair if there has been damage to the gut wall. Butyric acid is the main source of food and energy for gut cells.
  Because of these beneficial uses, butyric acid is sold as a supplement by companies like Biotics Research (Product: Butyric-Cal-Mag), Pharmax (Product: Butyrate Complex) and BodyBio (Product: Cal Mag Butyrate).
  - Helps protect against colon cancer: By maintaining good health of the gut cells, many studies have found that butyric acid helps reduce the risk of developing colon cancer significantly.^17,18,19 Butyric acid promotes healthy intestinal cell growth whilst inhibiting the growth of cancerous cells in the gut.¹⁷
  - May inhibit cholesterol production: Like its shorter chain cousins, butyric acid also decreases cholesterol levels in the body.^{9, 20}
  
• Benefits of Caproic acid (6 carbons ie 6:0)
  Caproic acid is found predominantly in butter, but also in smaller amounts in cheese, coconut fat and licorice. It smells a bit like a goat-shed and is found also in goat’s cheese, hence the name caproic acid, where “Capra” or “Caper” is the Latin name for goat. (It’s where the word “Capricorn” also comes from).
  The benefits of caproic acid are not well studied.

Benefits of Medium-chain fatty acids

Medium-chain fatty acids generally contain between 8-12 carbons in their chains.

• Benefits of Caprylic acid (8 carbons ie 8:0)
  Like caproic acid, caprylic acid is also named after the goat due to its smell and high prevalence in goat’s cheese. Aside from goat cheese, caprylic acid is also found in high amounts in coconut fat, palm kernel oil, butter, cheese, and some herbs like sage.
  Benefits of caprylic acid:
  - Antimicrobial: The most well-researched benefit of caprylic action is its use in eliminating certain bacteria, viruses, yeasts and fungi.^21-27 There is no doubt that caprylic acid has antimicrobial effects, however the strength of these effects are under debate amongst researchers. Studies so far have produced varying results. In my opinion, it may be beneficial to include it alongside other antimicrobial protocols if you’re trying to get rid of some bugs in your system, to hit ‘em from all angles.
  - Other possible benefits that require more research: Caprylic acid has also been used for other beneficial uses like dissolving gallstones²⁸, affecting appetite and treating ulcerative colitis, but more studies need to be done in these areas.
• Benefits of Capric acid (10 carbons ie 10:0)
  Capric acid shares with caprylic and caproic acid it’s goatish associations, and again, is found in high amounts in goat’s cheese, as well as in other cheeses, coconut oil, palm kernel oil and sage.
  Benefits of capric acid:
  - Antimicrobial: Like caprylic acid, capric acid is also a known antimicrobial, helping to fight fungi^31,32 and other microorganisms^33,34.
  - Other possible benefits in need of more research: Some studies indicate capric acid may be good for cardiovascular health because it helps relax blood vessels^29,30 but more research is needed to fully confirm this benefit. 

• Benefits of Lauric acid (12 carbons ie 12:0)
  Lauric acid is named after the laurel leaf (better known as the bay leaf) because this was the first plant from which this saturated fat was isolated. However, lauric acid is more abundant in palm kernel oil, coconut oil, butter and cheese than in bay leaves.
  Benefits of lauric acid:
  - Antimicrobial: There is a bit of a running theme amongst the medium-chain saturated fatty acids in that they all have antimicrobial action. Studies have found that lauric acid can fight bacteria^35,36,, fungi³⁷, and viruses³⁸. This may be beneficial for a wide range of conditions including bacterial acne, overgrowth of gut pathogens, and ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori.
  - Raises HDL: Upon first glance, it appears that lauric acid increases cholesterol levels. A closer look at the data reveals that although it does increase cholesterol, it increases the “good cholesterol”, HDL as well as the “bad cholesterol”, LDL. Some studies have suggested that lauric acid may help reduce cardiovascular risk through its HDL boosting effects.^{39, 40,41} This benefit of lauric acid is slightly controversial because of concurrent LDL boosting.

Benefits of Long-chain fatty acids

The long-chain fatty acids are generally 14 or more carbons long. They nearly always make up the largest proportion of saturated fat in food, with one or two exceptions (coconut oil being one such exception where the medium-length fatty acid, lauric acid is the main saturated fat). Here are the benefits of each of the long-chain fatty acids.

• Benefits of myristic acid (14 carbons, ie 14:0): Myristic acid which is found largely in coconut oil, fish oil, cheese, butter, nut oils and meat, has general uses in maintaining cell function and increases the good cholesterol, HDL, slightly, although it also increases the bad cholesterol, LDL (and it raises LDL more than it raises HDL, so overall it’s not advantageous for someone with high cholesterol).
• Benefits of palmitic acid (16 carbons, ie 16:0): Palmitic acid is the number 1 most abundant saturated fat in foods, and is found in palm oil, cocoa butter, dairy butter, cheese, nuts, coconuts, seed oils, nut oils, olive oil, sunflower oil and margarine to name but a few.
  Palmitic acid has a structural role in cells, forming part of cell membranes and acting as the precursor to other fats and fatty molecules that are made by the body. Perhaps due to its very functional role, it is usually the dominant saturated fatty acid in food, making up 60-70% of the saturated fat composition of animal fats and about 40% of the saturated fat composition of dairy fats.
  Palmitic acid is also one of the body’s “energy storage” molecules which is useful in times of famine and starvation.
  Although it appears that these functions are beneficial, other fatty acids can be converted into palmitic acid, so much like the other saturated fats it’s not essential to eat it, although it is impossible to avoid due to its high prevalence.
• Benefits of stearic acid and longer saturated fats (18+ carbons): These are found in lard, animal fats, cocoa, cocoa butter, butter, margarine, various vegetable oils, fish, nut and seed oils, and nuts. Cocoa products are one food group where stearic acid (18:0) makes up the dominant saturated fat component.
  These long-chain saturated fatty acids have some functional uses in the body’s metabolism, including the production of all sorts of fatty molecules that the body needs to build cell membranes and various biochemicals. Stearic acid also helps form a fat energy storage for times of famine and starvation.
  Like palmitic acid, these longer chain fatty acids can be made by the body from shorter chain fatty acids if necessary so are not essential in the diet. These long saturated fatty acids don’t really have many benefits aside from their mundane body functions.

The long-chain saturated fatty acids are better known for their negative side effects than their positive ones. The negative side effects of the saturated fatty acids will be discussed in the next article: Saturated fats: Why saturated fats are bad.

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References

1. Topping. 1996. Short-chain fatty acids produced by intestinal bacteria. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 5:15-19
2. Ogawa et al 2000. Acetic acid suppresses the increase in disaccharidase activity that occurs during culture of caco-2 cells. Journal of Nutrition. 130(3):507-513
3. Fushimi et al. 2006. Dietary acetic acid reduces serum cholesterol and triacylglycerols in rats feda cholesterol-rich diet. British Journal of Nutrition. 95(5):916-924.
4. Ostman et al. 2005. Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr.
5. Lutz. 1990. Effects of short chain fatty acids and K on absorption of Mg and other cations by the colon and caecum. Z Ernahrungswiss. 29(3):162-168.
6. Belitz, Grosch & Schieberle. 2009. Food Chemistry. Springer.
7. Yajima. 1985. Contractile effect of short-chain fatty acids on the isolated colon of the rat. Journal of Physiology. 368:667-668
8. Demigne et al. 1995. Effect of propionate on fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis and on acetate metabolism in isolated rat hepatocytes. Br J Nutr. 74(2):209-219
9. Hara et al. 1999. Short-chain fatty acids suppress cholesterol synthesis in rat liver and intestine. Journal of Nutrition. 129(5):942-948
10. Henningsson. 2002. Content and distribution of short-chain fatty acids in the hindgut of rats fed various sources of indigestible carbohydrates. J Nutr. 132(10):3098-3104
11. Wright et al. 1990. Propionate inhibits hepatocyte lipid synthesis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 195(1):26-29
12. Lee et al 2010. Naturally occurring propionic acid in foods marketed in South Korea . Food Control Volume 21, Issue 2, February 2010, Pages 217-220
13. Scheppach, et al. 1992. Effect of butyrate enemas on the colonic mucosa in distal ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology. 103(1):51-56
14. Scheppach. 1996. Treatment of distal ulcerative colitis with short-chain fatty acid enemas. A placebo-controlled trial. German-Austrian SCFA Study Group. Dig Dis Sci. 41(11):2254-2259.
15. Head et al. 2004. Inflammatory bowel disease. Part II: Crohn’s disease – pathophysiology and conventional and alternative treatment options. Alternative Medicine Review. 9(4):360-401
16. Segain et al. 2000. Butyrate inhibits inflammatory responses through NFkappaB inhibition: implications for Crohn’s disease. Gut. 47(3):397-403.
17. Vanhoutvin et al. 2009. Butyrate-induced transcriptional changes in human colonic mucosa. PloS one 4 (8): e6759
18. Avivi-Green et al. 2002. Different molecular events account for butyrate-induced apoptosis in two human colon cancer cell lines. Journal of Nutrition. 132(7):1812-1818
19. Hinnebusch et al. 2002. The effects of short-chain fatty acids on human colon cancer cell phenotype are associated with histone hyperacetylation. Journal of Nutrition. 132(5):1012-1017
20. Han et al. 2003. Resistant starches of beans reduce the serum cholesterol concentration in rats. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol. 49(4):281-286
21. Nair et al. 2005. Antibacterial effect of caprylic acid and monocaprylin on major bacterial mastitis pathogens. J Dairy Sci 88 (10): 3488–95.
22. Erasmus. 1993. Fats that Heal, Fats that Kill. Alive Books, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
23. Amalaradjou et al. 2006. Inactivation of escherichia coli O157:H7 in cattle drinking water by sodium caprylate.. J Food Prot.Sep;69(9):2248-52
24. Van Immerseel et al. 2004. Medium-chain fatty acids decrease colonization and invasion through hilA suppression shortly after infection of chickens with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004;70(6):3582-7
25. Chang et al. 2010. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. on alfalfa seeds by caprylic acid and monocaprylin.Int J Food Microbiol. Nov 15;144(1):141-6.
26. Solis de los Santos et al. 2009. The natural feed additive caprylic acid decreases Campylobacter jejuni colonization in market-aged broiler chickens. Poult Sci. Jan;88(1):61-4.
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29. White et al. 1991. Identification of capric acid as a potent vasorelaxant of human basilar arteries. Stroke. Apr;22(4):469-76.
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32. Chadeganipour et al. 2001. Antifungal activities of pelargonic and capric acid on Microsporum gypseum. Mycoses. 2001 May;44(3-4):109-12.
33. Thormar et al. 2006. Stable concentrated emulsions of the 1-monoglyceride of capric acid (monocaprin) with microbicidal activities against the food-borne bacteria Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella spp., and Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006 Jan;72(1):522-6.
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Do I have to eat saturated fats to be healthy?

When it comes to saturated fats, it’s important to remember that none of the saturated fats are essential to eat because our body can make them on its own from other raw materials. The only essential fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid (an unsaturated omega 3 fatty acid), and linoleic acid (an unsaturated omega 6 fatty acid). So it’s not a question of “I have to eat saturated fats to be healthy”. It’s more a  question of: “Which saturated fats are ok for me to eat?” or “Which saturated fats may benefit me in some way?”

Which saturated fatty foods are safe to eat?

Generally, it is the short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids which seem to have few negative impacts on health, whilst the long-chain fatty acids like palmitic acid and myristic acid are the main culprits causing problems. Unfortunately, foods that contain short and medium chain saturated fatty acids usually also contain these harmful long chain fats.

For example, if you look at butter, 43% of its saturated fat content is the harmful palmitic acid (16:0) whilst only about 22.3% of the saturated fats are short and medium chain fats that have beneficial impacts. Does this mean that butter is good or bad for you? It’s a difficult question to answer. Perhaps the best answer is that butter has it’s good points as well as its bad points to consider and is neither entirely good for you nor entirely bad for you. Having said that, if you’re someone with already skyhigh cholesterol, you probably should avoid eating foods like butter that are rich in palmitic acid which may further raise your cholesterol. In my opinion, for those with normal cholesterol levels, a small amount of butter in the diet (say a small knob a day) would be ok as part of a healthy diet, as long as it’s not eaten excessively and as long as you don’t indulge yourself in plenty of other foods containing high amounts of palmitic and myristic acids.

What about other saturated fat-rich foods?

Cheese again is mostly composed of palmitic acid, with this making up around 40% of the saturated fat content. At the same time, cheeses also contain the beneficial short and medium chain fatty acids. Goat’s cheese in particular is high in these beneficial saturated fats, where about 31.6% of the saturated fat content is composed of these beneficial short and medium-chain saturated fats. Cow’s cheese has lower amounts of these beneficial fats, measuring at about 20% or so. So is cheese ok to eat? Like butter, perhaps in moderation, it is ok, but it’s important to remember that the majority of its saturated fat content is the unhealthy palmitic acid so it would not be recommended for people at high risk of heart disease nor for people suffering from high cholesterol. If you like cheese, goat’s cheese certainly has an edge on cow’s cheese in terms of its amounts of healthier saturated fats, so goat’s cheese is the healthier cheese option.

As a general rule, virtually all fats have palmitic acid as their most abundant saturated fat. There are a few exceptions to this rule and one of these is Coconut Oil. Coconut oil’s main saturated fat is lauric acid (12:0), which makes up 51.6% of the total saturated fat content (vs only 9.5% palmitic acid). Having said that, coconut oil is quite high in the LDL-raising myristic acid (14:0), where this makes up 19.4% of the fat content. Although high in medium-chain saturated fats, coconut oil has very few beneficial short chain fatty acids. So should you eat coconut oil? Personally, I would alternate between using Coconut Oil and butter in cooking (both in small amounts of about a knob a day) as part of a healthy diet. Certainly when applying heat in food preparation, coconut oil or butter are preferential because they are more stable at higher temperatures compared with unsaturated fats like olive or canola oil that are more prone to oxidation and free radical formation.

Another fat where palmitic acid isn’t the dominant saturated fatty acid, is cocoa butter and cocoa. Here the dominant fatty acid is stearic acid (18:0), where this makes up 55.6% of the total saturated fat content, and palmitic acid makes up 42.5%. As you can see, there is still a fair amount of LDL-raising palmitic acid to make cocoa a “to be eaten in moderation” food too.

When it comes to animal fats, they are mostly composed of palmitic acid, and have virtually no beneficial medium-chain or short-chain saturated fats. This means that on the whole, there are no benefits to eating animal fat.

Getting your body to make its own healthy short-chain saturated fatty acids

Since eating foods rich in short-chain fatty acids usually also means consuming the unhealthy long-chain saturated fatty acids, it leads to the question: Is there a way to just get the good fatty acids in without the bad ones? The answer is yes. You can help your body make the beneficial short-chain fatty acids. Or to be more precise, you can help your body’s friendly bacteria make them for you!

Our guts are filled with beneficial bacteria. In fact, one estimate says that we have 10 times more bacterial cells in our gut than we have human cells in our whole body! (Savage 1977). One of their beneficial roles is to make acetic, propionic and butyric acid from fibre. The more fibre you have in your diet, the more food these bacteria have to make these beneficial short-chain fatty acids for you. So get munching on those veggies and wholegrains!

The bottom line on saturated fats?

The bottom line on why we avoid saturated fat foods is because on the whole, their chemical make-up means that the dominant saturated fatty acid is a harmful one (palmitic acid acid usually), meaning that we probably should avoid eating saturated fat foods for optimal health. Having said that, there is a place for them in cooking, and for other beneficial uses of saturated fats. In some cases supplementation of individual short-chain or medium-chain saturated fatty acids like butyric acid and caprylic acid may be indicated as part of a nutritional therapeutic program.

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Around 17.7% of American adults have used nutritional supplements in the past year according to one recent survey. But do we really need to supplement our diets with multivitamins and minerals? And if so, why do we need supplements?

It depends on what you mean by “need”.

If need is defined as what’s required to function in a way which allows you to simply survive to see tomorrow, then you probably don’t need supplements. To survive another day we can cope on the bare minimum of nutrients needed to stave off deficiency diseases. However functional impairments may result in the long-term, and quality of life as well as lifespan may not be optimal on a bare minimum nutrient intake.

If need is defined as what’s required for having an optimally functioning body, the story is a bit different. Functioning optimall means not only surviving and staving off nutrient-deficiency-diseases, but also provides all the raw materials you need for feeling as well as you possibly can. It means feeling high in energy and vitality, and having all the nutrients you need to strengthen your individual weaknesses. To fulfil such a need, in my opinion, supplements may indeed be very useful.

A study that was done on a group of lab-rats helps illustrate this point: (I know lab-rats are very different from humans, but there are enough similarities in how the concept of nutrient requirement levels works between species, that it still helps clarify the point) :

• 5mg vitamin A a day will keep away vitamin A deficiency signs like blindness and sterility
• 8mg vitamin A a day will help give normal vision
• 24mg of vitamin A a day are needed for normal liver stores of the vitamin
• Even more than 24mg a day is needed in rats for optimal functioning of things like growth and reproduction.

But why do I need supplements rather than just a healthy diet?

If we’re getting nutrients into our bodies every day through our food, why do we need supplements? That’s a good question, and the main reason why is that a shocking amount of people have sub-optimal nutrient levels when eating a normal diet.

“A recent national study showed that 74% of women were falling woefully short on nutrients in their diet.” Says Former Chair of the British Association of Nutritional Therapists, Dr Marilyn Glenville. “The National Diet and Nutrition Survey published in 2003 which looked at adults aged between 19-64 showed that only 15% of women and 13% of men actually achieved the 5-a-day target for fruit and vegetables. 74% of women failed to achieve the RNI (Recommended Nutritional Intake) for magnesium, 45% for zinc, 84% for folic acid and 15% for vitamin D.”

Why would I have sub-optimal levels of nutrients?

There are 3 main reasons for having sub-optimal nutrient levels:

Reason 1: Food is not as rich in nutrients as you might think

Why might this be?

(i.) Crops are often picked before they get to peak nutritionally

When you pick fruit before it has fully developed, it may not have had the opportunity to reach it’s peak level of nutrients yet. Often fruit is picked before it is ripe, to help it last longer during transport, and is ripened artificially before it is put on the shelves.

(ii.) Processing strips food of nutrients:

A lot of the foods around us are stripped of their nutrients. Whenever something is processed certain nutrients are lost, whether it’s milled into flour, canned, cooked. Even fresh foods are “processed” by simply being transprote for long periods of time from farms to get to us.

As one example, look at the table below of vitamin C losses when peas and potatoes undergo different processing methods, even seemingly innocuous ones like “boiling”.

(Source: King’s College London; Nutrition Department lecture notes)

Many of us believe we’re getting vitamin C from our peas in spite of the fact that they may have been swimming in nutrient-leaching fluids in cans for months, and have actually lost 96% of their original vitamin C content!

For those of us who eat white bread, we often don’t realize that most of the nutrients have been refined out to the extent that it needs to be artificially fortified.

(Source: King’s College London; Nutrition Department lecture notes)

(iii.) Soils aren’t as rich in minerals as they once used to be

In many farms around the world, the soil has been overfarmed causing nutrient-depletion of the soil. Since crops largely gain their nutrients from the earth, low nutrient levels in the soil mean low nutrient levels in our food. Even soil that has undergone careful treatment to maintain high levels of nutrients (such as lying fallow, crop rotation, fertilization and other techniques), may still not contain the full spectrum of nutrients we need. Another factor to consider is that different locations in the world have different levels of minerals in the ground.

Reason 2: You may not be absorbing large amounts of the nutrients

As it stands, for a lot of nutrients we absorb a pretty small percentage of the amount we are exposed to. For example, the average absorption of iron from food is only 1-25% of the full amount found in meat sources and a mere 1-10% of the amount found in plant sources.

People with conditions like gut inflammation, food intolerances, malabsorption, and poor digestive function may also have reduced absorption levels of nutrients, meaning that they need a lot more in order to get the required amount for optimal health. The older we get, the poorer our absorption often becomes.

Reason 3: You may be using up nutrients at higher levels than you might think, so you need larger amounts to replenish them

Every day we are subjected to things that deplete our nutrient levels which our ancestors were not exposed to.

For example, nutrient depletion is accelerated by smoking, pollution, exposure to chemicals, pesticides, radiation, alcohol, stress and emotional strain.

People with certain imbalances in the body and various illnesses also may deplete nutrients at a faster rate. Presence of parasites are a fine example of how nutrients can be leached by an ailment and something like diarrhoea or vomiting is another clear example of how nutrients can be lost. Other illnesses that one might not associate with nutrient losses, may also deplete nutrients, like arthritis, or even psychological conditions like depression, because they are a biochemical and physiological stress on our bodies.

In addition, conditions like pregnancy, lactation and growth use up nutrients in higher amounts.

Ok, that makes sense, but if all this is true, why do I feel perfectly fine without taking supplements? And how come my grandma lived to 120 without taking any? AND why don’t I feel any differently whenever I take supplements?

We’re all individuals, so we all have slightly different requirements for nutrient levels we must consume. It may well be that you are lucky enough to have a body that has amazing absorption, doesn’t deplete nutrients, and functions well on a lower level of nutrients. However, in my opinion it’s far more likely that if you are young, the effects of nutrient deficiencies may arise later in life after being deficient for a long period of time. The world of nutrition works gently and slowly where the effect of a supplement used therapeutically may potentially take a few months to kick in. This is also why you don’t necessarily feel any differently a day or a week after you take supplements. When taken at doses required for good health, nutrients work on subtle levels, maintaining your body functioning so that you maintain your current good health. They are great preventatives, and studies following people taking various supplements for years have found that specific supplements do reduce the risk of developing a wide range of sinister health conditions. In fact, the idea is to take supplements so that you won’t ever feel differently than you do when you’re healthy!

If you have found in the past that you don’t feel any differently in spite of taking supplements not for prevention, but for therapeutic purposes for a certain condition, there are many possible reasons for this.

• – It may be that you’re not taking the right dose,
• – It may be that you’re not taking the right supplement (the right combination of nutrients, or the right chemical form of the nutrient).
• – In addition supplement companies differ in their quality and therefore effectiveness of product.
• – Not only this but if there are problems in absorption which aren’t addressed, then you won’t be absorbing much of the supplement either.
• – It may also be that nutritional deficiency isn’t the only contributor to the particular ailment which is occurring. Aside from physical contributors which may be affecting the situation, psychological factors often are contributors too. So it’s important to address the problem holistically, from all dimensions, including but not only limited to nutrition, to help alleviate the problem.

What about your grandma who lived to 120 without supplements? It’s all related to us being individuals with different needs. Maybe your nan wasn’t exposed to as many nutrient-depleting factors in her lifetime. And if she was explosed to many nutrient-depleting factors, and smoked 2 packs of cigarettes a day and still lived to 120, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) explains this with the concept of Jing. TCM theorizes that we’re all born with different strengths of constitutions. Some of us are lucky enough to have a lot of Jing (strength and energy) from birth, and these are the types of people who can get away with smoking, eating badly and still have enough Jing left over to live long lives in apparent good health. Other people aren’t as lucky, and are born with lower Jing. If they act in the same was as their high-Jing counterparts, this may result in ill-health cropping up, and shortened lifespans.

Supplements sound way better than food – Can I just take tablets instead of eating?

Most definitely, no! Whilst supplements can be a fantastic way of *supplementing* your healthy diet, it is certainly not a substitute. A tablet may contain 1 or more individual nutrients, but a food contains a plethora of nutrients which you may not be supplementing as well as other factors like enzymes and antioxidants. Many also believe food has a unique, immeasurable “life force” which cannot be replicated in supplements. In other words, the whole food is more than the sum of its parts.

Cautionary Note about supplements
Where nutrients are used therapeutically, it is important not to begin seeing them as “alternatives to drugs” where you give them to treat certain symptoms. The root of the problem should always be addressed, and supplements can be used to tune up health until the root cause is sorted out.

Where nutrient supplementation is used for general maintenance of good health and prevention of disease, some nutrients in supplement form are best avoided. This applies where studies have shown that supplementation is associated with some degree of risk. For example, iodine supplementation has been associated with the triggering of autoimmune disease in some people with a genetic predisposition for this.

Similarly, some supplements are extremely useful and beneficial to take in the short-term to support your health, but can have negative effects if used at high doses in the long-term (i.e. for decades). This applies to antioxidant nutrients like vitamin E, vitamin A, beta carotene and vitamin D. Too much of anything, even a good thing, is usually not a good idea.

As Dr Mercola says, the Goldylocks formula of “not too little, not too much” is key for good health. To get it “juuust right”, having a nutritionist or naturopath guide you through the complex world of supplementation is advisable.

The Bottom Line:

The bottom line is that in my opinion supplements can play an important role in the maintenance of good health, both in prevention and when used therapeutically. But nutrients used in supplementation, their forms, and brands should be chosen carefully. It is also important to keep in mind that supplements simply cannot emulate the natural combination of goodies in foods, nor make up for other factors in life which may impact on health, they must be used hand-in-hand with a holistic healthy diet and lifestyle for the best results.

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My favourite multivitamins:

Most multivitamins contain iodine, which I  do not use in anyone who has autoimmune antibodies in their blood test results or a family history of autoimmune disease, but if you have neither of these then my favourite multivitamins to use due to their superior quality and brilliant dosage-levels are:

For people with autoimmune connections I tend to supplement nutrients either with an iodine-free multi like Nature’s Plus’ Nutri-Genic Softgels
or I supplement individual nutrients to suit the unique needs of the person.

Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com and Zazzle . If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

When you think of iodine, a lot of us think of that brown smelly stuff the school nurse used to smear over our grazed knees as an antiseptic. Or maybe we think of the periodic table and violet cloud sitting in shiny glass flasks marked “toxic!” in chemistry lessons. But iodine also forms an essential nutrient that we need to eat in order to function! In order to function? What are the functions of iodine in the human body? Why do we need iodine?

Function of Iodine

It wouldn’t be an exaggeration to say that iodine is needed for the healthy function of almost every cell in the body. This is because iodine is an essential ingredient that’s needed to make two hormones that have an extremely widespread purpose in the body. These are the thyroid hormones: T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine). These hormones affect virtually every cell in the body, but they can only do this as long as you have enough iodine to make them.

So the benefits of iodine are closely linked with the action of the thyroid hormones. Let’s get started then! Here are the top 10 benefits of iodine:

Benefit 1: Iodine helps give us energy

Every action we make requires energy. Whether it’s walking, talking, thinking, blinking or just sitting there letting our heart muscle beat – they all require energy. The iodine-derived thyroid hormones have a role in telling the body cells how much energy to make.

If you have too much iodine, and as a result excessively high levels of thyroid hormones, your body will be making too much energy and in order to release it, side effects like shaking and a rapid heartbeat may arise. If you don’t eat enough iodine (which is far more common than having too much), then you’ll be making too little energy, and are more likely to feel sluggish, fatigued and apathetic.

Benefit 2: Iodine helps us feel not too cold, not too hot, but juuuust right

Closely connected to the amount of energy we make is our body temperature. Chemistry 101 tells us that heat is a type of energy. When we make a lot of energy, like when we exercise, we feel hot, and when we don’t make a lot of energy, for example when being very still for hours sitting in front of a computer, we feel more cold. Similarly, when iodine levels are high, and your cells make more energy, body temperature rises, whereas when iodine levels are low, your body temperature decreases.

Thyroid hormones also help dilate the blood vessels to allow the warm blood to flow to your extremities. If you have low iodine, and therefore low thyroid hormones, this function is impaired and you may be more prone to getting cold hands and feet.

Benefit 3: Iodine helps us keep a healthy body weight

The rate at which we use up energy is also linked to our weight. If you use up more energy than you’re eating, you lose weight, and if you use up less energy than you’re eating, you gain weight. Taking this into consideration, if your body has low iodine, and therefore makes energy more slowly, it makes you more prone to gaining weight. On the other hand, too much iodine has the opposite effect. But don’t go running to the health shop to buy an iodine supplement to help you lose weight! Overweightness may be linked to low thyroid hormones in some cases, but sometimes it has nothing to with thyroid hormone levels. More often than not, overweightness is more complicated than having one driver, and there are far safer and more effective ways to lose weight than reaching for an iodine supplement which may do you harm if you don’t need it. What is recommended is ensuring you have good levels of iodine-rich foods in your diet to help you maintain a healthy body weight. If you feel iodine may be an issue for you, it is advisable to consult a nutritionist or naturopath.

Benefit 4: Iodine helps us grow and develop

The thyroid hormones seem to be closely linked to growth hormone. Even tadpoles need iodine to make thyroxine in order to grow from tadpoles into frogs. Likewise, humans need thyroxine to grow and develop, and children who lack iodine exhibit growth retardation. Bone cells, skin cells, and everything in between-cells all need iodine in order to help us grow and develop.

Particularly important, is that iodine also controls the brain’s growth and development, so sufficient iodine is vital for developing intelligence and even more basic skills like speech, hearing and movement. These functions may be affected not just in developing children, but also in adults with severe iodine deficiencies.

Other cells which are important to grow and develop properly are the sex cells. Iodine is needed for healthy reproductive ability and low iodine could be a contributor to suffering from infertility and difficulties in conceiving.

When cell growth and development goes wrong, disease can occur. Iodine deficiency is thought to be linked to some types of cancer such as breast, ovarian and uterine cancer, and also to Fibrocystic Breast Disease. Keeping a healthy iodine intake may help lower the risk of developing such conditions.

Benefit 5: Iodine helps us think!
Iodine isn’t just needed for brain development, it’s also needed for brain function in general.

Research from about 20 studies found that patients who were severely deficient in iodine had an IQ that was over 10 points lower than test volunteers with good iodine levels.

Benefit 6: Iodine helps us maintain appropriate emotional responses to the world around us. In other words it affects how we feel

The thyroid hormones affect how sensitive we are to adrenaline and other catecholamine molecules, and this can affect how we feel.

With low levels of iodine, we have low levels of thyroid hormones, and therefore low sensitivity to catecholamines. The result of not responding to adrenaline and catecholamines as a person normally would, is that we can feel apathetic and generally lack motivation. It can even manifest as a type of depression.

At the other extreme, people with excessively high levels of iodine and thyroid hormones feel the effects of adrenaline more strongly and as a result can feel overly anxious, as if they’re about to jump out of a plane despite going about everyday activities and having normal levels of adrenaline produced.

So keeping normal iodine levels is important to keep us reacting proportionately and as-nature-intended, to the world around us.

Benefit 7: Iodine helps us deal with cholesterol, and so is important for heart health

The thyroid hormones play a role in controlling the cells that deal with cholesterol, because the hormone T3 triggers breakdown of cholesterol. So too little iodine can raise your cholesterol levels. Too much iodine also interferes with the body’s cholesterol balance.

Benefit 8: Iodine controls heart rate (another reason why it’s important for good heart health)

The thyroid hormone, T3, controls your heartbeat rate.

If you have low iodine, and therefore low T3, your heart rate and pulse will be slower, and if you have excess iodine, you’re more prone to a fast heartbeat and pulse. This may also be linked to the fact that increased thyroid hormones affect adrenaline sensitivity, because the higher your adrenaline sensitivity, the more likely your heart is going to beat fast even at normal adrenaline levels.

You want your heart to beat around 72 beats per minute, because if it beats fast for long periods of time due to high thyroid hormones being present, it tires the heart out. If the heart beats more slowly due to small amounts of thyroid hormones being made, the heart won’t be pumping blood around as efficiently and the result may be poor circulation of oxygen, nutrients and warmth around your body. Yet again, getting just the right amount of iodine in your diet is important.

Benefit 9: Iodine keeps our skin, hair and nails healthy

Energy is needed to control the speed at which our hair cells and skin cells are made. The more energy we have, the more cells we can grow. With low iodine, we may have slow wound healing, poor hair growth and slow nail growth. With excessive iodine we may have hair that goes through its growth cycle so fast that it also falls out quicker leading to thinning; or we may have excessive skin growth which can lead to itching or increased pigmentation. Good amounts of iodine help keep hair, skin and nail health optimal.

Benefit 10: Iodine helps us manage our blood sugar levels

The thyroid hormones enhance the function of insulin, and other blood-sugar-managing processes, so normal iodine levels are needed to ensure healthy blood sugar balances.

- – -

What is the right amount of iodine?

Throughout this article I’ve talked about getting the “right” amount of iodine, but what exactly do I mean by this? Worldwide authorities are in agreement that adults need 150mcg of iodine per day.

How do you make sure you’re getting the right amount of iodine?

When reading through this article, if you’ve identified with some of the possible signs and symptoms of deficient or excessive iodine levels, then there is a possibility you might not be getting the right amount of iodine in your diet. We all need to do this, but if you have signs and symptoms, you might benefit from examining your diet for iodine-rich foods and adjust any lack or excess as necessary. Alternatively you may want to consult a nutritionist, naturopath or other health practitioner for personally-tailored advice. It is important to note that sometimes what may appear to be iodine-related symptoms may be something else entirely, because there is a large overlap of symptoms of various conditions. For this reason, having a health professional assist you is always advisable.

If you don’t really have any signs and symptoms but would want to know what your iodine levels are, it’s a good idea to go for testing. To do this, any nutritionist or doctor could refer you to have a simple urinary iodine test done, or alternately a blood test can be conducted which assesses thyroid hormone levels.

If you need more iodine in your diet, you can make sure you are consuming good levels of iodine by eating iodine-rich foods (see link for a reliable list I compiled of iodine-rich foods). Eating fish or seafood about 2-3 times a week is generally a good idea, although always go for small fish, because these are less likely to have accumulated high levels of toxins like mercury. Including eggs, small amounts of seaweed and small amounts of cocoa can also get some more iodine into your diet. Dairy is another source, but it is not one I recommend because many people find themselves reacting negatively to dairy produce. It’s difficult to overdose on iodine with food unless you’re eating seaweed or iodised salt. If these are eaten, they should only be eaten in very small amounts because they are very high in iodine.

Iodine is a mineral that I would recommend to get through your diet rather than by supplementation because there have been cases where iodine supplements are suspected to have triggered off autoimmune disease and hyperthyroidism, both of which are unpleasant and difficult to treat. Personally I wouldn’t supplement iodine by any means other than food, and even with certain foods I’d be careful. Having said that, the 10 benefits of iodine show how important it is to ensure you are having your recommended 150mcg a day through your diet.

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- Why do I need zinc?
- Why do I have bad breath? And why do I particularly have bad breath in the morning?
- Why do I feel tiredness after eating? (and what can I do about it?)
- Why does my stomach make noises? (and what can can I do about it?)
- Why do I blush?
- Why do I keep getting colds?

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This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and Zazzle. If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

Zinc is a trace mineral which is essential because we can’t make it ourselves. If we don’t eat enough, deficiency signs and symptoms appear. Shockingly, studies have revealed that about 75% of the population in Western nations have suboptimal zinc intakes. The average intake is about 8-10 mg a day whereas the optimal amount is 15-50 mg zinc a day, depending on the amount of zinc you are losing every day, through your stool, urine and sweat; a quantity which varies from person to person. For example drinking coffee and alcohol, as well as smoking are all activities which increase excretion of zinc, along with excessive exercise and stress.

OK, so we need to be having more zinc – but why? What does zinc do?

Benefits of Zinc

Zinc has so many functions that when I first studied it, it would not be an exaggeration to say that there were so many that it made my head spin! But I will try to organize the wonderous benefits of zinc into 8 manageable bite-size pieces for you here!

Benefit 1: It helps Build and Repair our Cells and Tissues

Build and repair cells… That sounds really biological and a bit vague, so let me give some examples as to how zinc’s role in building and repairing cells is important in the body.

a.) Zinc Keeps muscles healthy and allows them to grow:

Most of the body’s zinc is found in muscles, where its use in cell building and repair is helpful particularly after a workout.

When we exercise, especially in weight-training, we put our muscles under strain and in order for them to grow, we literally rip them apart and build new cells in the tears. Then viola! A bigger muscle is created. Zinc is needed for this cell growth and rip-repair and is therefore used as a supplement by some body builders for this purpose.

Zinc is useful in muscles not only for its use in cell building and repair. It’s also important here because it is an antioxidant mineral. Muscle cells create a lot of energy when they are active, and this process of energy production creates health-damaging free radicals as a byproduct. As an antioxidant mineral, zinc is a free radical antidote which is helpful in obliterating free radicals and keeping the body healthy.

b. Zinc helps maintain strong, healthy bones:

Zinc plays an important role in “bone mineralization”, the process in which minerals are bound to the bone matrix to help harden and strengthen the bone tissue. There are a couple of enzymes which are vital in bone maintenance which need zinc, including alkaline phosphatase and collagenase. Zinc also regulates the production of a hormone called calcitonin which helps regulate bone health.

Zinc’s use in bone health comes in useful when healing broken bones when taking a zinc supplement could be of benefit.

Zinc also plays role in keeping tooth enamel strong and cavity-free.

c. Needed for growth in childhood and adolescence:

A time when a lot of new cells are made is whenever there is growth. So children and teens use up a lot of zinc to make new cells! Not only this, but zinc may also be needed to make growth hormone.

One of the first discoveries of the essentiality of zinc found that children who didn’t have enough zinc didn’t grow properly and dwarfism resulted.

d.) New Cell Growth Keeps skin healthy:

Skin is constantly renewing as old cells are shed, and new cells grow to replace them. Since zinc is needed for cell building, it is essential for healthy skin.

Zinc also plays a role in enabling vitamin A function, another vitamin which keeps skin healthy.

If ever you have a wound, a cut, or a burn, zinc is very important in sealing up and repairing the damage. It is also useful for treating acne, psoriasis, dandruff, boils, dermatitis, dry skin, bedsores, and recovery from surgery. All of these could benefit from zinc supplementation.

e. Keeps hair and nail cells healthy:

Because it helps cells grow and because it is needed for the production of keratin, zinc is very helpful in maintaining healthy hair and nails. It can be used where there is hair loss, poor hair growth, and unhealthy nails, although care should be taken because excessively high doses of zinc (usually over 50mg a day) can cause hair loss. Getting just the right amount of a nutrient is a fine balancing act sometimes!

f. Zinc Keeps the cells layers internal surfaces in good condition

Our insides are full of tubes and surfaces which are made of cells, all of which need healthy cell production and maintenance that is enabled by zinc.

For example, the gut wall and all the intestinal tubes, and the walls of blood vessels, all need healthy cell production to function well.

This means that if you have an ulcer of some kind, whether it be a mouth ulcer or a more serious ulcer in your gut, or if you have a leaky gut, zinc would be useful to help repair this.

Zinc also strengthens the lining of bronchioles, lungs and just about all other tissues in the body.

g. Builds immune cells to protect you from disease:

Because zinc helps the body build cells, it is very important in building your immune cells which protect your from disease.

Zinc is one of the main nutrients needed when you have a cold, or another illness, because your body uses it up very quickly in the process of making immune cells to fight the intruding germs! So supplementing with zinc when you next have a cold or some other bug will be a good idea! It can also help protect the body from warts and speed up recovery from herpes, and other viruses, bacteria, fungi and baddies. Any case of excessive microorganisms in the body can be helped by zinc, to rally the immune system to fight these bugs. So conditions like bad breath, body odour, foot odour, gum disease, high amounts of tooth decay, and dysbiosis can all be helped by zinc supplementation.

Any condition where immune cells are imbalanced can also be helped by zinc, because zinc can help make the cells which are deficient. For example, the Th2 dominance disorders: asthma, allergies, eczema, hayfever, CFS, Crohn’s disease and Ulcerative Colitis (to name but a few), can all be helped by zinc supplementation.

With allergy-type conditions, zinc may be particularly helpful because it may also inhibit allergic inflammation by inhibiting histamine release, and helping reduce inflammation by promoting anti-inflammatory chemical production (called eicosanoids).

h. Needed to build reproductive cells and is therefore essential for fertility in both men and women:

Not only is zinc important in building reproductive cells for normal sexual function and development, but zinc is also a part of semen. When semen is lost, so too is zinc (15mg zinc lost per ejaculation to be precise!) and this must be topped up. This is partly why men need a little more zinc than women.

Zinc is one of the first nutrients to think of in cases of infertility.

i. Needed to build new cells in pregnancy and lactation

Another time when many new cells are being produced is in pregnancy and lactation. Zinc helps support cell production at these important times.

Benefit 2: Zinc helps us Detoxify all sorts of nasty chemicals

As mentioned above, zinc acts as an antioxidant mineral to fight against damaging free radicals which we come in contact with every day. Zinc does this by encouraging the production of enzymes that break down free radicals, SOD (super oxide dismutase). Zinc also helps form a molecule called glutathione which helps to mop up free radicals by absorbing them thus neutralizing them.

Because zinc is an antioxidant mineral, it helps prevent all sorts of free-radical-driven diseases including cataracts, ageing, sun-damaged skin, atherosclerosis, age-related macular degeneration and cancer, amongst others.

Free radicals aren’t the only baddies that zinc helps your body detoxify. Zinc also helps the body eliminate some heavy metals like arsenic, cadmium, mercury and lead, and also aids the body metabolise and get rid of alcohol. Since a lot of zinc is used up to detox alcohol, it is really important to top up zinc in heavy drinkers.

By protecting the body from all these damaging toxins, zinc also helps protect the liver from problems like cirrhosis and liver damage.

Benefit 3: Zinc helps us Digest our food

Zinc helps make both stomach acid, and some of the digestive enzymes made by the pancreas (e.g. carboxypolypeptidase). Both of these are essential for good digestion.

For this reason, zinc is useful in treating heartburn that is commonly caused by low stomach acid, and a wide range of other conditions caused by low stomach acid.

Benefit 4: Zinc helps us with all sorts of housekeeping tasks in our body
Over 100 enzymes in our body need zinc to function, so zinc plays an important role in maintaining healthy functioning of a lot of processes in our body, from protein synthesis, to carbohydrate metabolism and DNA synthesis. It also helps maintain the body pH and aids in the production of a range of hormones in the body including sex hormones e.g. testosterone, stress hormones e.g. cortisol and insulin.

Benefit 5: Zinc helps us with blood sugar balancing

Zinc is needed to make insulin, the hormone which helps us regulate blood sugar levels. Healthy insulin production is incredibly important in maintaining healthy blood sugar levels, keeping good energy levels, and in controlling cravings, amongst other things.

Benefit 6: Zinc plays a role in making us feel energetic and vibrant

Zinc plays a role in energy production because it helps make enzymes needed to make energy, like lactate dehydrogenase.

Zinc’s wide array of housekeeping uses and cell-building skills, in organs that regulate energy (e.g. the thyroid) make it a crucial part of energy production.

People with low zinc levels can feel lethargic and low on stamina.

Benefit 7: Zinc controls all sorts of things in our nervous system, keeping them functioning optimally

Zinc is responsible for a list of functions including helping us be able to taste, smell, hear, have a good appetite, and have a good libido.

Zinc also plays a role in the production of omega 3 fatty acids in the brain which are important in brain functioning. For this reason, zinc is useful in treating ADHD, alzheimer’s disease, apathy, autism, dyslexia, depression, schizophrenia, and in boosting attention, learning and memory.

Benefit 8: Zinc inhibits the enzyme 5 alpha reductase which has been implicated in causing male pattern baldness and prostate enlargement

The enzyme 5 alpha reductase converts testosterone to DHT, which has been implicated in hair loss and prostate enlargement. By inhibiting this enzyme, zinc may be able to inhibit these processes.

Supplementing Zinc

If you think you might be deficient in zinc, or have a condition that may benefit from zinc, there are two main ways to go about supplementing zinc.

(1.) Supplement Zinc with  Zinc Rich Foods

The first way to supplement zinc is through having lots of zinc-rich foods in your diet. The best absorbed form of zinc is from animal foods, particularly oysters, liver, shellfish like whelks and crabs, and red meat. Plant sources of zinc aren’t as well absorbed, but can contribute to zinc intake too, and these include wheat germ, quorn, nuts, pine nuts, tahini and seeds.

For a list of zinc-rich foods, here’s an article I wrote for HealthMad.com which you can have a look at.

Elson M. Haas MD says that in his experience it’s difficult to acquire sufficient levels of zinc through food alone, because who eats oysters or liver every day? Not many people! And nutritionally speaking, this would not necessarily be advisable either for various reasons (e.g. oysters containing heavy metals and pollutants from the sea, and liver potentially containing some undetoxified toxins). In more everyday foods,  zinc is found in relativeley small amounts.

Zinc supplementation with supplements may be a good alternative.

(2.) Supplementing zinc with zinc supplements

There are a lot of zinc supplements on the market. How do you know which is the best one?

Generally, the best form according to studies is zinc picolinate because it is extremely well absorbed and has no known unpleasant side effects. Zinc citrate, zinc ascorbate, amino acid chelates for zinc, and zinc gluconate are also good, although these aren’t as well absorbed as zinc picolinate.  Zinc sulphate is the worst one you could go for because not only is it poorly absorbed but it also may cause nausea.

My favourite brands of zinc supplements are:

• Solgar’s Zinc Picolinate (US) (UK) which contains 22mg per tablet.
• Nutri’s Zinc Picolinate (UK) which contains 15mg zinc per capsule.
• Thorne Research’s Zinc Picolinate (US) (UK) which contains 30mg zinc per capsule.
• Solgar’s Zinc Citrate (US) (UK) which contains 30mg zinc per capsule.

I tend to go with Solgar’s Zinc Picolinate because it is the form that is best absorbed and is the most fairly priced, as well as being from a company whose high quality supplementation practices I am familiar with.

A dose of around 40 mg a day is great if you have a condition that requires zinc, such as a cold, microbial infection of some sort, bone fracture, skin condition, asthma, allergies or if there is high depletion of zinc through smoking, alcohol drinking and stress, to name but a few. For the average person for general wellness around 15-30 mg a day is sufficient.

Related articles
See articles in the nutrition and health categories including:
- Why do I need iodine?
- Why do I get cold hands and feet?
- Why do I keep getting colds?
- Why did my hair darken as I got older?
- Why does my energy and well-being level change at specific times of the day? The Chinese Body Clock

Related Products

Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com and Amazon.co.uk If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.