Most of us in the Westernized world are familiar with the dentist’s office, and many of us are equally familiar with the butterflies and unease that accompany an impending visit to the dentist. For these people, they may find themselves asking: “Do I have to go to the dentist?” This article looks a little into why a visit to the dentist can be useful and important.

10 Reasons why to visit the dentist:

1.) To help keep your teeth and gums healthy and strong

Although dental damage can be treatable, once it occurs it’s often irreversible, so it’s helpful if a dentist will spot signs of potential problems before they even occur. Dentists examine the mouth very closely and are able to access how good your oral health is. If you are not brushing well or not quite reaching all the necessary areas in your flossing regime, a dentist can identify this and help guide you to improve your oral hygiene and the future health of your teeth.

2.) To enable you to eat and drink comfortably

It’s easy to take our teeth and gums for granted, but just ask someone with a cavity what it’s like to eat something sweet or cold, or ask someone with missing or dodgy teeth to eat something hard and crunchy and you’ll realize that it’s important to have healthy teeth to enable comfortable eating and drinking. Poor dental health can reduce the choices of foods and drinks you can eat. Visiting the dentist helps you keep strong teeth to enable you to enjoy the full spectrum of foods out there.

3.) To help you maintain good breath

A dentist’s help in maintaining your dental health is another step towards beating bad breath. With the dentist’s guidance for maintaining good oral hygiene, it can help prevent the build-up of oral bacteria which are behind bad breath in around 85-90% of cases.

4.) To help keep the appearance of your teeth beautiful

Throughout history, healthy, straight pearly whites have been a sign of beauty and this remains to be true today.

A dentist or specialized dental hygienist can help you keep your teeth beautifully white by doing a thorough dental cleaning treatment using special equipment which is superior to a normal toothbrush . It can remove plaque, tartar and staining from things like coffee, tea, tobacco and others substances that leave a residue on your teeth. The result? A world of difference to your smile. Even if you follow a rigorous oral hygiene routine at home there’s nothing quite like a dentist’s clean.

A dentist can often also recommend a good orthodontist to straighten your teeth if necessary. Dentists can even help improve your smile in situations like missing teeth which can be filled with seamless tooth implants.

5.) To treat existing dental problems and removing any related discomfort

Unfortunately, sometimes we get to the dentist when we’ve already caused some damage to our teeth or gums through poor diet and poor dental hygiene. The good news is that a dentist can help identify common dental diseases, such as decay and gum disease, which can cause pain and discomfort, and treats them so that you feel better. Treating them promptly also ensures the problem is resolved before it gets any worse, to ultimately help you keep your teeth as healthy and strong as they can be. When caught at the early stages, treatment can be easy and minor so it’s best to treat them as soon as possible because neglect can lead to the development of more major dental damage which can be more unpleasant and more expensive to treat.

6.) To prevent tooth loss

If oral health is neglected, in the worst case, a tooth can be lost. Regular check-ups can help prevent this from happening.

7.) A good dentist may be able to catch early tooth-signs of other body-wide health problems, helping you nip them in the bud

Some studies suggest that an inspection of the mouth’s bacteria can give clues to the risk of certain diseases including strokes, heart attacks, diabetes and even dementia. By examining your mouth, your dentist may be able to catch these problems to help you treat them before they develop further.

Dental x-rays can sometimes also pick up osteoporosis to enable early treatment.

Oral cancer is another condition that can be spotted by dentists, and the sooner someone spots the warning signs of this, the quicker treatment can begin and the better the chances of successful recovery. An early spotting of signs of oral cancer by a routine visit to the dentist can literally save your life.

8.) To help you maintain good health in general

Some health conditions are linked to poor oral health.

Maintaining good oral health which includes regular visits to the dentist, may reduce your risk of diseases like heart disease. Some studies have suggested a possible link between bacterial gum disease leading to an increased risk of atherosclerosis and heart disease. It has been suggested that the mouth bacteria may affect the body’s functioning within blood vessels.

9.) The more you get used to the dentist, the less the fear of going

For those who are afraid of going to the dentist, the longer they wait, sometimes, the worse the fear gets. If you go more regularly, face your fear, you’re likely to see that it’s not so bad (afterall, it’s only been a short time since your last visit so chances are everything will be ok). The more accustomed you get to hearing good news from the dentist after regular check-ups, the less scary a dentist’s office will seem.

10.) Regular visits with no necessary damage-control are cheaper than a serious visit with serious damage-control later on

Routine treatments and check-ups at the dentist are much cheaper and more pleasant than complex and more serious courses of treatment that may result from years of dental neglect.

How often should I visit the dentist?

Most experts recommend that you should visit the dentist once every six months.

About the Authors
This article has been co-written by Richard Keane and Li-Or. Richard writes for the website dentalimplant.co.uk and does his best to take care of his teeth and gums for future dental and general health.

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The causes of grey hair in each of these instances often differ.

This article will examine what causes grey hair in prematurely greying people. You can read about appropriate-age hair greying here.

How do you know if you’re greying prematurely or if it’s just your time?

The average age of grey hairs to first appear seems to be around the late 20s, early 30s, but usually at this age the odd white hair is not really noticeable. It becomes noticeable when a large percentage of your head hair turns grey.

Premature grey hair is broadly classified as a situation where more than 50% of a person’s hair is grey before they are 40 years old.

Causes of prematurely grey hair

There are many possible reasons for premature greying. The main ones are described below:

1.) Dietary causes for premature greying

Malnutrition can be behind prematurely greying hair.¹

Particularly in cases where your parents do not have a history of early greying, diet should be examined carefully as a potential cause.

Some nutritional deficiencies that may be behind premature greying include:

• Copper deficiency²,
• Protein deficiency: Since protein is a major raw material for hair health, it may be linked to greying hair when it is deficient. When protein deficiency is severe it can result in the disease, kwashiorkor, which is known for changes in hair pigmentation.³
• B5 deficiency^4-6
• PABA deficiency: Several studies have found that supplementation of the B-vitamin-like nutrient, PABA, has reversed hair greying as long as the supplement was taken. Results seem inconsistent and the mechanism by which it sometimes works is unknown but studies found that about 25% of people experience grey-hair reversal after around 6 weeks of supplementation at large doses of PABA.¹⁵ Unfortunately the colour was lost again within 3-4 weeks of stopping PABA supplementation. It may be that the people who responded to treatment were those who were deficient in PABA to begin with, and those with sufficient PABA levels did not respond to treatment. The dosage used by the researcher in the described experiment was 6 – 24g of PABA a day, which is an extremely high dose. Other authors reported positive results with only 200 mg of PABA a day.¹⁶ It should also be noted that high PABA dosage can cause diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, skin irritation and liver irritation, and in children doses of 20g can be lethal, so I would avoid supplementing high doses in adults too. It seems research is still inconclusive about what the best, safe dosage of PABA would be. Naturopathic Nutritionist, Dr Elson Haas suggests that some authorities supplementing with PABA for the purpose of reversing premature greying give 1000mg of PABA a day¹⁷, whilst others recommend not going over 400mg a day.
• Iodine deficiency⁷ : This causes hypothyroidism, which may decrease circulation of nutrients to the hair follicle as mentioned below (see Poor nourishment of hair due to poor circulation)

It is possible that other nutrient deficiencies may contribute to premature greying too.

It is interesting to note that often appetite and state of nourishment decrease with age, which makes me wonder if this may be a contributing factor to increased greying with old age.

In some cases, a person may be eating a good diet, rich in nutrients, but their gut health and digestion isn’t functioning well which means they may not be absorbing enough nutrients, and may therefore exhibit premature greying from nutritional deficiencies. In such cases, working on improving digestion with a Nutritionist or Naturopath can be helpful in preventing premature greying.

Things that deplete nutrients may also increase risk of nutritional deficiencies and associated premature greying. The main thing that depletes nutrients is stress. Stress can come in many forms, from internal stressors like inflammation, certain psychological states and disease (e.g. hyperthyroidism which uses up the body’s resources at an elevated rate), to external stressors like sun exposure, radiation, pollution and smoking. When stressors enter the equation, nutrients are used up faster than usual so you need more nutrients to replenish those that are used, otherwise deficiencies may result.

The good news is that prematurely greying due to malnourishment may be temporary, and potentially resolvable upon correction of the dietary deficiencies.

Note that these nutrients may help prevention of prematurely greying hair *only if* their deficiency is the driver behind it in the first place. Nevertheless, a good multivitamin like Nature’s Plus’ Nutri-Genic Softgels (iodine-free) or Nature’s Plus’ Source Of Life Liquid (contains iodine) would be beneficial for most people, and an occasional protein shake like “Whey To Go” can be a great snack.

2.) Poor nourishment of hair due to poor circulation

Sometimes you have enough nutrients in your body but due to poor circulation, they don’t make their way to the head in abundant amounts. This makes me wonder if this may partly have something to do with why as you get older and are less active, you are more prone to get grey hair.

Hypothyroidism is linked to poor circulation of nutrients, and it too has sometimes been associated with premature greying of hair.⁷

To get circulation going you can apply the following:

• Exercise: Make sure you’re active, and getting at least 30 minutes exercise 3 times a week.
• Deep breathing: Every day do 5-10 minuets of deep breathing exercises to encourage good circulation. It’s also great for stress management. If you combine deep breathing with a clearing of your mind and concentration on your breath, it is equivalent in its beneficial stress-fighting effect to meditation.
• Massage: Full body massage helps get your juices flowing! You could also do just a scalp massage if your focus is on hair health. There are Indian Head Massages for this purpose, or you could do it yourself: Whilst washing your hair, take time out to massage your head gently with your fingertips for 5-10 minutes to improve circulation to your scalp.
• Eat circulation-boosting foods. These include pungent and spicy foods like Chilli, ginger, cayenne pepper, black pepper, garlic, apple cider vinegar, rosemary and turmeric.
• Dry skin brushing can aid circulation. Some nice brushes you can get in the US include Body Brush Purest Palm 9″ L and Body Brush Natural Bristles.
• Hot/Cold therapy: Alternating between hot and cold temperatures stimulates circulation. This is why alternating saunas and steam rooms with a plunge in a cool pool can be good to get circulation going.

3.) Oxidation and free radical damage

There is a theory that oxidative and free radical damage of cells are behind premature greying of hair.⁸ The theory here is that hairs go grey because somewhere in the hair pigment production pathway, cells are damaged due to oxidative stress. The damaged cells are unable to carry out their functions, pigment cannot be made and cells go grey. Not only have Arck et al.⁸ found evidence for this free radical theory of greying, but also several activities that increase oxidation and free radical formation have been associated with premature greying of hair. These activities are listed below:

a.) Smoking

Smoking has been found to increase risk of premature greying of hair.^9, The mechanism is unclear, though it may be linked to the “cell damage by oxidation and free radical formation” theory. Other possible mechanisms could be that smoking puts the body under stress, and this stress may deplete the body’s nutrients, contributing to nutritional deficiencies which can cause premature greying, as already discussed. Another possible mechanism is that smoking contributes to poor circulation of blood which also increases risk of premature greying.

b.) Hydrogen peroxide build-up

Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidant, and although it is uncertain whether dying your hair blonde with it increases the risk of premature greying, some studies suggest hydrogen peroxide is linked to premature ageing of cells.¹¹ Extrapolation of this could suggest hydrogen peroxide build-up may contribute to the destruction of pigment-producing cells.

Natural hydrogen peroxide is produced in the body too in normal metabolism. Usually it is broken down by an enzyme called catalase so that it doesn’t accumulate, however in conditions like vitiligo it is known to accumulate to higher-than-normal levels, potentially contributing to premature greying in vitilgo patients. In ageing cells, their breakdown of hydrogen peroxide is also less efficient which may partly contribute to increased greying of hair with age.¹¹

c.) Stress

Psychological stress may give rise to oxidative stress¹². Although stress has not been formally linked to greying of hair scientifically, anecdotal stories of such occurrences do exist.

It could be that greying of hair that has been associated with stress may be related to hair loss in response to stress. Hair loss is a known side effect of stress, and mass hair loss gives the opportunity for mass new hair growth. If a person has lost melanocytes, usually it takes a while to perceive this change because you have to wait until a pigmented hair falls out in order for the new unpigmented hair to grow in its place. But if there has been hair loss, then lots of new hairs grow at once, none of which have melanocytes behind them to make melanin, so it appears as though suddenly you have a lot of grey hairs, but this wouldn’t have occurred if you didn’t have that mass hair loss that was brought on by stress.

d.) Sun exposure

Dr. Bihova, the assistant professor of dermatology at New York University Medical Center, says that whilst there’s no unequivocal evidence for this, overexposure to the sun may increase risk of premature greying.¹³

If this is true, perhaps there may be a link to the oxidative effect of sunlight and the greying of hair.

4.) Genetics

(a.) The Bcl2 gene deficiency

Genes do seem to play a factor in the age of onset of greying hair. One particular gene contributing to greying is the Bcl2 gene. People with a specific genetic mutation for this gene, (a mutation known as “Bcl2 deficiency”) have been found to have increased destruction of the pigment-producing cells in hair follicles; cells known as melanocyte stem cells.¹⁴ (These cells are discussed in “Why does hair go grey?”). The more melanocytes stem cells are destroyed, the more grey the individual is likely to become.

(b.) Werner syndrome genetic disorder

Another genetic reason for prematurely grey hair and ageing is the rare Werner syndrome, where individuals can look elderly by age 30-40.

(c.) Vitiligo
Genetic predisposition to develop the autoimmune disease vitiligo increases risk of premature greying of hair which is seen together with skin colour changes.

Traditional Chinese Medicine perspective: Kidney Problems

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), TCM kidney health controls hair health, and premature greying of hair is a clear indicator of a TCM Kidney pathology, like Kidney Jing Deficiency. A visit to a TCM practitioner can treat the problem from this perspective.

NB. It’s important to remember that the TCM Kidney is not the literal equivalent of what we consider to be the kidney organs in Western Medicine.

There’s a very interesting-sounding Chinese herb called He Shou Wu (also known as Fo Ti or Ho Shou Wu) which may be appropriate for some people in dealing with greying hair, but I would certainly recommend seeing a practitioner before taking a herb like this.

Ayurvedic perspective: Excess Pitta

An Ayurvedic practitioner may conclude that premature greying is the result of too much “pitta” in the system. A visit to an Ayurvedic practitioner will be helpful if you want to go for treatment via the Ayurvedic approach.

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Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and The Nutri Centre (for UK visitors). If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

References

1.)    McKenzie et al. 2007. Childhood malnutrition is associated with a reduction in the total melanin content of scalp hair. Br J Nutr. Jul;98(1):159-64.

2.)    Uauy et al. 1998. Essentialilty of copper in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 67(Supplement):952S-959S.

3.)    Lunn et al. 1998. A case of kwashiorkor in the UK. Clin Nutr.  Jun;17(3):131-3.

4.)    Braun 2006. Herbs and Natural Supplements. Elsevier Health; 2nd edition

5.)    Kelly et al. 1997.  Pantethine: a review of its biochemistry and therapeutic applications.  Alternative Medicine Review.  2(5):365-377.

6.)    Linder 1991. Nutrition and metabolism of vitamins. In: Nutritional Biochemistry and Metabolism, 2nd Edition. Maria C. Linder (editor). Simon Schuster, Connecticut, USA, 1991:122.

7.)    Fundukian 2008. The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. 3rd edition.

8.)    Arck et al. 2006. Towards a “free radical theory of graying”: melanocyte apoptosis in the aging human hair follicle is an indicator of oxidative stress induced tissue damage. FASEB J. 20, 1567–1569

9.)    Blechman et al. 2000. Smoking accelerates aging process. Muscular Development. 37(12):52

10.)    Mosley & Gibbs 1996. Premature grey hair and hair loss among smokers: a new opportunity for health education?  BMJ 313 : 1616

11.)    Schallreuter et al. 2009. FASEB Journal. The Federation of the American Societies for Experimental Biology. Research by researchers of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz in Germany and the University of Bradford in Great Britain

12.)    Ellard et al. 2006. Perceived stress, psychological wellbeing and the activity of neutrophils in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Stress and Health 2006;22:143-52

13.)    Fisher 1997. Age Erasers for Women: Actions You Can Take Right Now to Look Younger and Feel Great . Prevention Magazine Health Books, Rodale Center for Women’s Health. St. Martin’s Press

14.)    Nishimura et al. 2005. Mechanisms of Hair Graying: Incomplete Melanocyte Stem Cell Maintenance in the Niche.  Science 4 February 2005: Vol. 307 no. 5710 pp. 720-724

15.) Zarafonetis. 1964. Darkening of gray hair during para-amino-benzoic acid therapy. Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 399-401.

16.) Sieve. 1941. Clinical achromotrichia. Science. 94:257.

17.) Haas. 2006. Staying Healthy with Nutrition, rev: The Complete Guide to Diet and Nutritional Medicine

1.)    Grey hair that occurs with increasing age
2.)    Premature grey hair that occurs long before the appropriate age sets in. Some say premature greying is considered applicable where over 50% of your hair is grey before the age of 40.

The causes of grey hair in each of these instances often differ.

This article will examine what causes grey hair with increasing age. You can read about premature greying here

What age is normal for hair to go grey?

There comes an age when it is expected to see a grey hair or two without it being considered “premature greying”.

Whilst it’s true that this age differs from person to person depending on their genetics and race, statistics show that around a white-skinned person’s late 20s to early 30s, the first grey hairs are often seen. Dark-skinned races often have an extra grace period of about 10 years before their first greys set in.

Past the age of 30, each decade sees an increased 10-20% risk of gaining grey hairs.

Whilst it is considered premature greying for a person to have 50% grey hair before the age of 40, if this is the case by the age of 50, it is considered quite normal.

But why do hairs go white with age?

Causes of grey hair with increasing age

In order for hair to have colour, it must have the pigment molecule melanin in the hair follicle. Melanin is produced by special cells called melanocytes. The melanocytes pass the pigments they make to the nearby cells called keratinocytes whose job it is to build the pigments into the hair.

With increasing age, it has been observed that melanocytes die off, so that they no longer pass pigment to the hair. Without a pigment present, the hair appears white. The question is:

Why do the melanocytes die as you get older?

To answer this question we first need to ask: What makes the melanocytes?
The answer is: stem cells.
Stem cells are special cells because they are often pluripotent, meaning that they have the potential to turn into a wide range of other cells (pluri = many; potent = potential). In other words, stem cells are like an immature bud-cell which can grow up to become one of many cell types. One of the cell types that it can become is the melanocyte.

When melanocytes die as you get older, what happens to the stem cells from which they grow? Researchers have found that as people grow older, the number of stem cells in the location where they differentiate into melanocytes, also decreases.

Why do these stem cell numbers decrease with age?
Research is still trying to come up with answers.

One clue may be in a recent discovery of the role of a protein called Wnt, which is important for the interaction and signalling between stem cells. Insufficient Wnt protein has been associated with inhibition of melanocyte stem cell activation.

If decreased Wnt signalling is behind grey hair, it’s a good question to ask: Why would Wnt signalling at these stem cells be decreased with increasing age?
Wnt may be inhibited from being formed or it may be inhibited from carrying out its functions in spite of being around, but these questions are still under research.

If you’d like to have a go at solving the great Wnt mystery, you can start by reading more about the Wnt signalling pathway here although it gets extremely technical.

The bottom line on why do we get grey hair as we get older
At the time of this article, we don’t really know! But it seems to be something to do with the reasons behind Wnt protein signalling pathways being disrupted with age.

Theories about why we adapted to get grey hair with age

Although we don’t fully understand the biological mechanisms, this doesn’t stop us from hypothesizing about why it might be a beneficial evolutionary change to have grey hair with increasing age.

The main theory regarding why older humans have grey hair parallels one of the main theories of why we age.

This theory of ageing is that the longer we are around on Earth, the more time there is for oxidation, and wear and tear of cells to build up over time.

It could be that the drivers behind hair pigment formation (melanocytes, melanocytes stem cells and components of the Wnt signalling pathway) are also affected by accumulating cell damage that occurs with age. In this sense, greying hair may be a mechanism brought on by the removal of damaged cell components somewhere deep in the pathway that determines hair coloration. Since the removal of damaged cell components is protective of the body, it may be that the greying of hair is therefore a side effect of this safety mechanism in our body.

This theory is consistent with the fact that grey hair happens as we reach more mature years (by which time we are more likely to accumulate DNA damage). It is also consistent with the observation that greying of hair increases with smoking, hair-bleaching and excess sun exposure, all of which increase risk of oxidation, DNA and cell damage.

If oxidation is the driver behind the greying of hair, then avoidance of oxidizing activities that produce free radicals should reduce greying of hair. Such activities include smoking, excess sun exposure, exposure to hydrogen peroxide, excess exposure to ozone, exposure to radiation e.g. X-rays, excess consumption of oxidizing minerals like iron and copper (although you need sufficient levels for good health), and excess consumption of pro-oxidative foods like sugar.

Even if it doesn’t reduce grey hair, avoiding free radical formation is good practice for maintaining optimal health. Similarly, eating plenty of antioxidants may also be helpful.

You can read more about drivers of greying hair in the companion article on premature greying. It may be that some drivers of premature greying also contribute to greying of hair at more appropriate ages.

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Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and The Nutri Centre (for UK visitors). If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

If you were to break a human body down to its raw constituents you’d find that we’re mostly made of water. About 45-60% of lean body weight is water.² If you work it out, a 70kg man would contain within his body 42 liters of water! This makes it clear that water plays an important part in our bodies, but what exactly does it do?

Uses of water

1.)    Water is needed to help transport things around the body:
Several transport systems exist in the body that utilize water:

- Flow of blood:
The main transport system in the body is the blood which is composed largely of water. The water in the blood system is needed to carry the flow of oxygen, nutrients, immune cells and signalling molecules like hormones to cells and tissues, and to take away wastes, toxins and dead cells.
Keeping the blood flowing is important for many reasons including:

a.) To keep raw materials for energy production arriving at cells to maintain high energy. Insufficient flow of nutrients can lead to feelings of low energy and fatigue.

b.) To wash toxins and wastes away so that they don’t build-up to cause problems.

c.) To keep the blood at the right consistency which is important for heart health. If the blood becomes thicker, as can happen with severe dehydration, it is more effort for the heart to push it around (as there is more friction and resistance if the substance is thicker), and this increases the risk of  hypertension and heart disease.³

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) “blood stagnation” is a common contributor to disease and is thought to contribute to blood clot formation. You can look for TCM blood stagnation by looking at your tongue and nails, where a purple colouration indicates stagnant blood flow.

- Flow of lymph: Lymph is another body fluid consisting largely of water. Lymph uses water for the transport of immune cells, so water is important for good immune health.

- Flow of digestive juices: In the digestive system, water plays a role in the transport of material through the gut. Having enough water is important in preventing constipation and in maintaining good digestion.

- Flow of substances between cells: The water found in the extracellular fluid around the body cells acts as a transporting medium through which cells can signal to one another via sending and receiving certain biochemicals. This gives your body the ability to respond well to stimuli.

2.)    Water is needed to fill cells out and to keep them with the right shape and turgidity.

66% of the body’s water is within cells. This helps maintain cell and tissue structure in tissues like the brain or in muscles which contain a large amount of water.
Water is even a small part of bone tissue, and studies have found that consuming enough water helps reduce the risk of osteoporosis.
A clear example of a tissue where water is seen to play a role in maintaining its structure is in the skin. Too little water and your skin can be dry and the risk of wrinkles is increased.

3.)    Water is required for temperature regulation
Sweating is one of our key ways of cooling down to maintain healthy body temperature, and sweating is reliant on the presence of water. Insufficient sweating could make us overheat.

4.)    Water is needed for lubrication of body organs
Water lubricates, cushions and protects various organs:

- Lubrication of joints: Water helps bones move smoothly past one another at joints. A lack of water around joints can increase the risk of friction which can increase the risk of arthritis.

- Lubrication of the eyes: Water not only helps the eyeballs move around, but it also washes away dust and other particles that may enter the eye and obstruct vision.

- Lubrication of the spinal cord helps protect and cushion it. A lack of water around the spinal cord can result in back pain.

- Lubrication of the foetus: Water plays a similar protective role when present in the amniotic sac of a foetus in the womb.

5.)    Water in the body allows minerals to exist in their ionic state

Water provides a medium in which minerals can become ions, and this is important because minerals need to be in ionic form in order to carry out their jobs in the body. To illustrate this point, solid salt crystals act very differently to sodium and chloride ions in solution. The same is true inside the body.

Keeping minerals in their dissolved state is important to prevent problems like kidney stones and the uric acid stones found in gout, so drinking plenty of water is crucial in avoiding conditions like this.

6.)    Water helps in chemical reactions in the body:
There is a reaction called hydrolysis where water is used and broken up to help break up other molecules. (hydro = water ; lysis = breakdown).
One of the key areas where chemical reactions depend on water is during digestion where water provides the medium in which enzymes break down food molecules. Digestion-linked water is found in saliva, gastric juices and intestinal juices.
Chemical reactions are not exclusive to the digestive system. They can occur anywhere in the body so the cells need a medium to bathe in to allow for chemical reactions to take place. For example, enzymatic reactions throughout the body depend on a fluid medium to occur properly.

7.)    Water helps dilute toxins, acids and alkalis:

Some toxins are made within the body as by-products of our metabolism (like urea for example), whilst others are ingested (like pollutants and certain food chemicals e.g. alcohol). Water is used to dilute their dangerous effects.
Water also dilutes acids and alkalis to help ensure that the body is at the correct pH.
Several conditions benefit from the diluting power of water:

- Alcohol excess: Drinking water before, during and after alcohol dilutes its effects.

- Carcinogens: The diluting power of water may explain partly why a high intake of water has been associated with lowered risk of colon and bladder cancer.

- Heartburn-causing substances: Dilution also may explain why drinking water can alleviate heartburn which has been caused by certain food molecules you ate.

- Gout: Gout is another condition that benefits from the diluting effect of water. Gout occurs when a substance called uric acid is in excessively high concentrations in the body, and diluting it with water, and thereby encouraging its passage out of the body in the urine, can help.

- Headaches and migraines: Sometimes headaches and migraines are caused by excessive toxins or inflammatory molecules floating around in the blood. If you dilute these with more water intake, it can help alleviate the pain.

- Skin health: When the body has excess toxins, naturopathic theory suggests that they build up in the skin, where they can then create spots. The more water there is to dilute the toxins. the lower the risk that toxins will cause spots. Even skin conditions like psoriasis can benefit from drinking enough water.

- Diluting toxins can help lose weight: One theory has suggested that when the body’s toxins are dealt with by dilution, they are excreted via the kidneys in the urine. This puts less of a load on the liver for detoxifying them, leaving the liver free to metabolise fat, and this may promote fat elimination.

Note: Although water helps dilute toxins, the ideal would be that there are minimal toxins present in the first place. Prevention is always better than cure.

8.)    Water helps generate the power that drives our nervous system

Water together with mineral ions contained within it, generate a hydroelectric voltage across cell membranes which is used to drive impulses through our nervous system. Insufficient water may affect nervous function.

9.)    Water sometimes acts like glue in the body:
In certain situations the body uses water as a type of glue, to stick particular solid parts of cell structures together. You can see this effect on some level if you create a small water puddle on a table, and then put a ruler on the puddle. Try to pry the ruler off and you’ll see it sticks a bit.

10.)    Water is needed to be consumed in order to replace the losses:
Water is lost through sweating, urination, exhalation and even some in the faeces. It’s important to replenish these losses to enable water to carry out all the above functions.

Another minor benefit of water is that if you’re drinking certain mineral water brands, it provides a small amount of minerals like calcium, magnesium, sodium and copper. When buying mineral water, check out the label and you’ll often see there are traces of these. The best waters are those that are high in magnesium (>20mg per liter) and calcium (>50mg per liter), and low in sodium (<10mg per liter) and in nitrates (<5mg per liter).

How much water do we need? Recommended Water Intake:

As a rough guide, most nutrition sources say 6-8 glasses of water a day is the recommended water intake.

If you want to get slightly more technical and accurate, your fluid needs can be calculated according to your individual body weight. The formula is:

35ml water  x your body weight in kg = milliliters of water you need a day

So, say a woman weighs 60kg, she’d need 2.1 liters a day (35 x 60 = 2100ml), which equates to about 8 glasses of water a day (if 1 cup contains 250ml). The more you weigh, the more water you’ll need.

Apart from body weight, several other factors may increase your water needs, including consumption of diuretics (e.g. alcohol, caffeine), being in hot and/or dry environments, and being highly physically active. The more active you are, the more water you need to replace that lost in sweat. For athletes the formula changes to:

42ml water x body weight in kg = milliliters of water needed daily

Why do I have to drink water rather than other forms of fluids?

Water is the most sublime choice of fluid to hydrate with because it has no calories and hydrates you with minimal effort needed (e.g. no digestive-processing or liver detoxing is required to process water). Other drinks are often sugary, contain caffeine, artificial chemicals, sweeteners or other potentially problematic chemicals which means that they do other things than just hydrate the body. Sometimes these other drinks or fluids occupy the body’s resources unnecessarily, drawing energy and materials away from more useful activities.

The only other drinks that are good to hydrate with are certain herbal teas.

Can you ever drink too much water?

Yes. Too much of *anything* can be harmful.

Your kidneys can only get rid of water at a rate of about 1 liter an hour, so if you drink more than 1 liter in an hour, it means that you start to accumulate more body fluids than you can eliminate.  To illustrate why this is a problem, let’s look at a balloon as an analogy for your body: What happens when you force water into a balloon at a faster rate than it can leak it out of a pinhole? The balloon starts to expand and if filled up with enough water, it can burst. In short, excess water is not just a health hazard for balloons, it can also be dangerous for humans. So steer clear of any water-drinking competitions where you have to glug down more than a liter in one go. People have died at these types of competitions.

But it’s important to remember that drinking too much is very rare and water intoxication is not something you are going to experience from sensible water consumption. So drink your 6-8 glasses a day to maintain optimal health, but make sure you spread out your water consumption over the course of your day.

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Related Articles
See our other nutrition articles including:
- Carbonated Water: Is Fizzy Water Bad for You?
- Is saturated fat bad for you?
- Why do I need fiber?
- Why do I need iodine?
- Why do I need zinc?
- Why take supplements?

References

1. Glenville. 2006. Fat Around The Middle: How To Lose That Bulge – For Good. Kyle Cathie

2. Kumar & Clark 2005. Kumar and Clark’s Clinical Medicine. Saunders Ltd. 6 edition

3. Chan et al. 2002. Water, Other Fluids, and Fatal Coronary Heart Disease The Adventist Health Study Am. J. Epidemiol. 155 (9): 827-833.

Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and Zazzle. If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

We have all heard plenty of times that fiber is good for us because it keeps our bowels regular. But is this all we need fiber for? Are there other benefits of fiber? As it turns out, yes. There are many!

But before we start going into the benefits of fiber, it’s important to note that there are different types of fiber and that they have slightly different roles and therefore benefits. The main groups of fiber are:

• Soluble fiber, which includes fibers like gums, mucilage, pectin, Beta glucans, Resistant starch and resistant oligosaccharides. When found in foods, these are usually soft, slimy and mucilaginous and are found in foods like fruits (e.g. figs, apricots, prunes) , vegetables (e.g. okra, green peas, green beans), whole grains (e.g. barley, oats), and legumes (e.g. beans).
• Insoluble fiber, which includes cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose. When found in foods these are generally harder and rougher than soluble fiber, and are found in foods like nuts, seeds, whole grains (e.g. wheat) and the bran of grains, (e.g. wheat bran)

Insoluble fiber is beneficial but it only has one main benefit: It bulks up the stool. And this is beneficial because it helps train your gut muscles, keeping them strong so that you can have smooth and regular bowel movements, enabling you to eliminate wastes that could otherwise be harmful if allowed to build up (as discussed in Why do I poop?). Soluble fiber however has a few other interesting benefits:

Benefits of Fiber

1.) Fiber delays gastric emptying (i.e. it slows down food release from the stomach)

Studies have shown that some soluble fibers (like pectins and guar gum) slow down release of food from the stomach. In medical jargon we say they delay gastric emptying.^1-4

Why is this a benefit? For several reasons:

(a.) Delayed gastric emptying helps with sugar balancing

If sugar is released slowly from the stomach rather than all at once, it means that there isn’t a huge spike of sugar levels after a meal, but instead a more sustained trickle of sugar giving a prolonged source of energy. This is particularly useful for people who suffer from blood sugar imbalances like diabetics, insulin-sensitive people and people who experience frequent hypoglycaemia.

Fiber’s role in sugar balancing is also beneficial in reducing the risk of certain diseases linked with sugar imbalances. High sugar levels in the blood increase the risk of inflammation, oxidation, tissue damage by glycosylation and cardiovascular disease, to name but a few.

(b.) Delayed gastric emptying helps keep you fuller for longer

People trying to lose weight can benefit from the effect of delayed gastric emptying because if your stomach is full for longer, it increases satiety. As a result, you don’t feel as hungry and you are less likely to snack on unhealthy things between meals, or have another meal a short time after finishing the last. Nestle’s breakfast cereal, “Shreddies”, banked on this benefit of fiber by using the slogan “Keeps hunger locked up till lunch!” as seen in the attached video.

Note: Although I recognize Shreddies as a source of fiber I am not promoting them as a recommended source of fiber because they are made of whole grain wheat, a common ingredient that people are intolerant to.

The sugar-balancing and insulin-modulating effect that delays gastric emptying can really help with weight management.

2.) Fiber Lowers cholesterol

Numerous studies have found that some soluble fibers can lower cholesterol (most notably fiber in oats, psyllium and flaxseeds).^5-9

How does fiber decrease cholesterol? It seems that the mechanism is not fully understood but hypotheses include:

• Fiber may help bind cholesterol and cholesterol-derivatives (like bile) in the intestines. Binding prevents its reabsorption into the body and helps to package it off for elimination in the faeces. Because our body needs the presence of bile in the intestines to aid digestion, the removal of bile via fiber-binding encourages more bile to be made in the liver from cholesterol, so that you use up more of your body’s stores of cholesterol. This cycle repeats as long as you have a good fiber intake with bile being excreted and more being made to replace it. The result is a reduction in cholesterol levels in the body.
• Although we can’t break down soluble fiber, our gut bacteria can. They digest them into new byproducts like short-chain-fatty-acids, which are absorbed into the body and may reduce cholesterol levels by possibly inhibiting cholesterol production in the liver.
• Fiber may decrease the gut’s absorption of raw materials like fat from which cholesterol can be made.
• Fiber decreases “transit time” of the stool in the intestine. The less time the stool is in the gut, the less time there is to reabsorb the cholesterol byproducts (bile).

Via lowering cholesterol, soluble fiber is also good for cardiovascular and heart health.

3.) Fiber soothes an irritated gut

The smooth, soft, mucilaginous and moist soluble fiber should be soothing to an irritated or inflamed gut wall. Sufferers of inflammatory gut disorders like ulcerative colitis may therefore benefit from soluble fiber.

Note: This is one benefit of soluble fiber which is a polar opposite to insoluble fiber. Insoluble fiber is harsh and irritating to the gut wall and should be avoided in people with sensitive guts.

4.) Fiber promotes elimination of waste

Like insoluble fiber, soluble fiber also helps the passage of the stool. Whilst insoluble fiber creates the bulk of the stool, soluble fiber enhances the water-capacity of the stool, helping to keep it at a softer, smoother texture that is easier to pass.

Eliminating waste properly is really important for a number of reasons as discussed in the article Why do I poop?.

5.) Fiber feeds the gut bacteria

Inside our guts is a whole ecosystem of helpful bacteria. One of the gut flora’s main foods is soluble fiber, so by eating it, you are feeding them, keeping them alive and well.

Why are gut bacteria beneficial to us? They help us in several ways :

• They break down certain foods that we can’t break down ourselves, releasing their nutritional content for us to utilize.
• They provide us with more energy through the byproducts of their own digestion. One such useful byproduct is the short-chain fatty acids they produce.
• They act as an immunological barrier in the intestines, strengthening our immunity in the gut by fighting off any nasty “bugs” that are around.
• They can help with gut healing and health maintenance by playing a role in normalizing the gut pH, producing food for the intestinal cells, and helping to maintain mucosal integrity. For this reason they can be helpful in inflammatory gut problems.
• They even make some vitamins for us, like vitamin K and some B vitamins.
• They boost absorption of some nutrients like calcium, magnesium and iron.^10,11

6.) Fiber helps prevent all sorts of diseases and problems

Good soluble fiber intake has been correlated with decreased risk of the following conditions: appendicitis, constipation, colon cancer, coronary heart disease, diabetes, diverticular disease, gallstones, haemorrhoids, hiatus hernia, hyperglycaemia, hypoglycaemia, varicose veins, obesity and being overweight.

How much fiber per day should you have?

It’s clear that fiber is a beneficial addition to the diet, but how much fiber do you need to reap its benefits?

The American Dietetic Association advises a daily intake of 20-35 grams of fibrous foods for all adults, and 30g or more for those with constipation. An average high-fiber food contains 3-4g fiber per 100g, whilst some like nuts and seeds can contain around 6g fiber per 100g. So if you’re incorporating high fiber foods at every meal and snack, you should be reaching your 20-35g a day. Most people do not meet this requirement without conscious awareness of the need for fiber. According to the NDNS survey, most people only consume an average of 12.6 – 15.2g fiber a day.

High fiber foods to increase include:

• vegetables, especially okra, green peas and green beans.
• fruit, especially figs, apricots and prunes
• cereal grains like wheat germ, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat,
• legumes like beans,
• nuts, seeds and their products, like nut butters, seed butters and tahini. Flax seeds are a particularly good addition to the diet. You can grind them and put them in your breakfast cereal
• algae and seaweeds.

Low fiber foods to decrease include highly refined foods (like white rice, white bread and similar white products), junk food and protein-only diets such as Atkins.

Remember to wash down fiber with a lot of water otherwise some sources of fiber can lead to constipation instead of helping to alleviate it.

Word of warning about increasing fiber intake

As just mentioned, it’s important to drink plenty of water when consuming a high fiber diet. 6-8 glasses of water a day is ideal.

Another thing to watch out for is that increasing fiber in someone who is not accustomed to eating large amounts of indigestible matter can cause bloating, gas and digestive discomfort. These side effects can be avoided if the fiber is introduced in gradually increasing amounts.

Too much fiber can also interfere with absorption of nutrients if the transit time is too fast to allow efficient absorption.

Generally the body adapts to your increased fiber intake over a period of weeks.

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Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and The Nutri Centre (for UK visitors). If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

References

1. Landin et al 1992. Guar gum improves insulin sensitivity, blood lipids, blood pressure and fibrinolysis in healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr. 56. 1061-1056

2. Holt et al. 1979. Effect of gel fibre on gastric emptying and absorption of glucose and paracetamol. The Lancet, Volume 313, Issue 8117, Pages 636 – 639, 24

3. Schwartz et al. 1982. Sustained pectin ingestion delays gastric emptying . Gastroenterology. Oct;83(4):812-7

4. Torsdottir et al 1991. A Small Dose of Soluble Alginate-Fiber Affects Postprandial Glycemia and Gastric Emptying in Humans with Diabetes. J. Nutr. 121: 795-799

5. Brown et al. 1999. Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 69(1):30-42.

6. Kelley et al. 1994. Oat bran lowers total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol but not lipoprotein (a) in exercising adults with borderline hypercholesterolemia. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 94(12):1419- 1421

7. Anderson et al. 1999. Effects of psyllium on glucose and serum lipid responses in men with type 2 diabetes and hypercholesterolemia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70(4):466-473

8. Bierenbaum et al. 1993. Reducing atherogenic risk in hyperlipemic humans with flax seed supplementation: a preliminary report. J Am Coll Nutr. 12(5):501-504.

9. Prasad et al. 2000. Flaxseed: a source of hypocholesterolemic and antiatherogenic agents. Drug News Perspect. 13(2):99-104.

10. Coudray et al. 1997. Effect of soluble or partly soluble dietary fibres supplementation on absorption and balance of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc in healthy young men. Eur J Clin Nutr. 51:375-380

11. Guarner & Malagelada 2003. Gut flora in health and disease. Lancet 361 (9356): 512–9

Now that’s out the way , we can answer the next question: why do we poop?

Why we poop

You might think the answer to this question is obvious: what goes in must come out, right? Well, almost. After all, a lot of what we eat is converted to energy and building materials for our body. So why do we still poop? Why can’t we just convert everything we put into our bodies into useful materials?

The reason for this is that not all materials can be broken down by the body to be used. Although the body is an amazing machine that can interconvert lots of materials, it has its limits. It lacks certain enzymes and other tools to break down some molecules. One of the most well-known examples is fiber, an often-used aid in constipation exactly because it cannot be broken down and must therefore be eliminated in your faeces.

So is it just fiber that we can’t break down that makes its way to our poop? No – our poop is so much more than just fiber! Some statistics say that human excrement is made up of only about 8% fiber. What makes up the rest? Perhaps surprisingly, a lot of the stool is made up of water (about 75% of its bulk is water!), but that still leaves about 17% of stool materials that are unaccounted for. This includes stuff like:

• Dead bacteria: Our gut is full of bacteria, some of which help our digestion, and they constantly reproduce and die as they go through their short lifespan. When these die, they pass into the stool. Dead bacteria release endotoxins called lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) which can be harmful to the body, so it’s important these are eliminated.
• Live bacteria: Some live bacteria from the gut also make their way into the stool.
• Old cells and old cell components: Like bacteria, the body’s cells also have lifespans. The gut-lining cells for example have a lifespan of about 3-4 days, after which they are shed to join the stool in its passage out the body. Remnants of other cells also find their way into the stool. The brown colour of poop is due to the breakdown products of old red blood cells that find their to the stool.
• Mucus: Mucus is made by cells in the gut to act as a lubricant, helping to move the stool along. It also protects the lining of the gut from the friction as it passes, and from chemical interactions with chemicals in the stool. Some of this mucus finds its way into the stool. A stool that is well-coated with a thin layer of mucus explains the phenomenon of the “clean poop effect”, where there is nothing on the toilet paper after wiping.
• Waste products made by the body: This is perhaps the most important component of poop which explains why it’s so important to have good bowel movements regularly. Let’s go into a bit more detail on this point:

What waste products do we need to eliminate?

Every day we are exposed to chemicals in our environment from pollution, additives in food, medications and more and many of these chemicals cannot be recycled into useful chemicals in the body.

In our food, some naturally occurring food chemicals like alcohol, caffeine and benzopyrene (a carcinogen from charcoal-broiled meat) also need to be detoxified and eliminated.

There are even naturally-made substances in the body that are not 100% re-used by the body, like certain hormones (e.g. oestrogen) and other chemicals we make (e.g. histamine, cholesterol).

There are two options for the fate of these materials: Either they are eliminated through routes like defecation (although other routes also exist like via urine, sweat and exhalation), or they stay in the body and accumulate, where they can potentially cause problems.  When they build up to detrimental levels in the body, these chemicals are often nicknamed “toxins” in the complementary health world.

Several conditions have been linked with unexcreted bowel contents and retained bowel-related toxins, including:

• Faecal impaction from intestinal obstruction of unpooped poo. This is dangerous because there comes a point where the bowel is so full of waste that there’s nowhere for it to go, and the gut walls can rupture.
• Dysbiosis , which is the overproliferation of unhelpful bacteria in the gut that can occur. Bacteria thrive on the stagnating bowel contents, and as they feed they make gaseous byproducts which can make you feel bloated and gassy.
• Hormonal imbalances from unexcreted hormonal residues (from excess oestrogen and its side effects, to thyroid problems),
• Cancer from unexcreted carcinogens, particularly bowel cancer (aka colorectal cancer).
• Mood affectations : unexcreted waste materials that travel in the blood also find their way to the brain where they can have an effect on the nervous system and your mood.  Negative impacts on mood may also result from hormonal changes and from feeling generally sub par because of the accumulating wastes in your body.
• The circulation of toxins in the blood can aggravate the immune system which detects unwanted substances in the blood and responds by fighting against these chemicals, creating constant low-grade inflammation in the body and using up energy which could be better spent used elsewhere. When the body is busy fighting such things, there are less resources to fight other problems, and immunity is therefore reduced. The result is a tendency to catch any bugs flying around.
  The side effects of low-grade inflammation can exhibit as tonsil stones, excess mucus production in the nose and throat, feverishness, and generally feeling a bit under the weather.
• If not eliminated, some chemicals circulate in the blood and are deposited elsewhere, like in the skin, where they can increase the risk of acne.
• And others… Murray & Pizzorno² say that antigens and toxins from bowel bacteria have been found to be possibly related to the development of Diabetes mellitus, Meningitis, Myasthenia gravis, Thyroid disease, Ulcerative colitis and other diseases.

The bottom line on why we poop:

It’s essential in order to eliminate harmful chemicals, so that our systems are clean and healthy, and so that we feel light and full of vitality.

References

1. Urban Dictionary

2. Murray & Pizzorno. 1999. Encyclopedia of Natural Medicine. Prima Publishing,U.S.; 2Rev Ed edition

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Note:
This site is working in affiliation with Amazon.com (for USA visitors) and The Nutri Centre (for UK visitors). If you like a product that was recommended anywhere on this website, please consider buying these products via the links on this site, to help keep this website running. Thanks

Disclaimer:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this article is accurate. However the information contained in this article is for educational purposes only. Suggestions contained in this article are not intended as a substitute for consultation with a health professional. All matters regarding health and supplementation require medical supervision and careful examination of contraindications and possible interactions. The author does not accept responsibility for the use of this information, nor shall the author be liable for any loss, injury or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestions in this article.

Related Articles
- Why do I need fiber?

In spite of our best efforts to perfect our poses and our facial expressions when a camera is pointing our way, sometimes photos come back to us with our eyes glowing mysteriously ruby-red. Why do we sometimes get red eyes in photos?

The red eye effect happens when a photo has been taken using a flash. Usually in bright light the eye’s iris contracts to make the pupil appear small so that less light enters the eye. However when a flash is used, the iris doesn’t have enough time to adjust to the lighting so often the pupil remains large when the shot is taken.

What has pupil size got to do with red eyes? The bigger the pupil, the more light enters the eye and bounces off the back of the eye. Since the back of the eye (technically the choroid of the eye) is nourished by red blood vessels, the red surface absorbs all non-red light frequencies and reflects red light back. The red light that bounces off the back of the eye is detected by the camera, and voila! red eye effect is born.

How come animals don’t have red eyes when photographed?

In many animals, including common pets like dogs and cats, their eyes appear white in photos. Their eyes are built differently from ours because they have a layer in their eye called the tapetum lucidum which reflects all light back, not just the red light. When all light is reflected, the effect is a white light shining back in photos.

How the red eye effect can save a life

There is one rare cancer called retinoblastoma, most often found in children, which can be detected by seeing whether a child displays red eyes in flash photos or not. Children who have one or two eyes with a “white eye” in photos instead of a red eye should be checked for retinoblastoma. This white-eye effect is known as leukocoria and in the case of retinoblastoma it occurs because there is a cancerous tumour which is reflecting the light back out of the eye. When caught in time (often thanks to family photos) retinoblastoma has a really good cure rate.

Leukocoria need not always indicate cancer. It can indicate other health conditions so if it is spotted, it’s always advisable to have your eyes checked further. Other conditions which leukocoria could indicate include: cataracts, Coloboma, Persistent primary hyperplastic vitreous (PHPV), Retinopathy of prematurity, Norrie disease, Coat’s disease, a cloudy cornea from corneal scarring, Medullated nerve fibers, melanoma, ocular toxocariasis, Toxocara canis (infection caused by a parasite), Uveitis (aka Chorioretinitis) and retrolental fibroplasia.

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This four part series of articles aims to put saturated fats under the magnifying glass as we find out exactly what saturated fats are, whether there are any benefits to eating saturated fats, why we all think that saturated fats are bad for us, and what the bottom line conclusion on saturated fats is regarding whether they are good for us or not.

Let’s start off with fats in general: What is a fat?

Fats are basically molecules that are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. If you stick these chemical atoms together, it doesn’t automatically make them a fat. Case in point: these same chemical ingredients also make up carbohydrates. So what makes them become fats? The way they join up together makes the difference between carbohydrates and fats.
There are different types of fat, but most fats in the human body are made up of molecules that join up in chains called fatty acid chains. The way in which carbon hydrogen and oxygen atoms join together in fatty acid chains looks a bit like this:

It’s called a fatty ACID because of the way the oxygen binds at the end, in a formation that is known as a “carboxylic acid” group (also known as the -COOH group). The fatty acid molecules are acidic, particularly when the carbon chain is short. For example the shortest chain saturated fatty acid, acetic acid, is responsible for making vinegar acidic. (Yep! Vinegar has saturated fat in it!) The longer the chain, the more diluted the acidic carboxylic acid end so that long chain fatty acids aren’t very acidic at all.

The number of carbons in the chain varies, which means there are a lot of different types of fatty acids, depending on how long the chain is. In most foods, the chain length varies from a 2 carbon chain (acetic acid, as is found in vinegar), to 16-18 carbon atoms, and foods may even contain some fatty acids with 20-30 carbon atoms in their chains, although these very long chain fatty acids are rare and found in very small amounts in food. The top 4 most abundant fatty acid chain lengths in food are the 16-carbon (palmitic acid) which usually forms the major saturated fat in foods, 18-carbon (stearic acid), 14-carbon (myristic acid) and 12-carbon (lauric acid). Chain length drastically affects the health effects of a fatty acid. (As will be seen in Benefits of saturated fats and Why saturated fats are bad).

Looking at these individual chains a little more closely will reveal what determines whether a fat is classified as a saturated fat or not.

What is a saturated fat? In other words, what makes a fat saturated?

Very basic chemistry reveals that each carbon atom has four open positions through which it can bond with other atoms. When all four of these carbon bonding spots are occupied, the carbon in said to be “saturated” or full. If less than four atoms are joining onto a carbon atom, then you get spare bonds. What do these spare bonds do? They attach to existing bonds to form double bonds. Because there is a free bond in a carbon with a double bond, the carbon is said to be “unsaturated”.

In a fatty acid chain if all the carbon bonding spots are occupied, the fatty acid chain is said to be saturated, and this makes it a saturated fat.

Ok, but what does it mean if a fat is saturated in terms of how it looks outside of the microscope? Can I tell what it looks like when I look at food?

The answer to this question is: Sometimes. It can be hard to tell if a food contains saturated fat by just looking at it, unless you’re looking at food that is mostly made up of saturated fat, like:

• Coconut oil, where 86.5% of its fat content is saturated
• Palm kernel oil where 72% of its fat content is saturated
• Cheese, where about 65% of its fat content is saturated
• Butter, where about 63% of its fat content is saturated
• Cocoa butter where 59.7% of its fat content is saturated
• (Lard and animal fat have about 39% of it as fat content is saturated)

(I calculated these figures using the USDA National Nutrient Database)

So are there general trends in what these high saturated fat foods look like? Yes. These are as follows:

a.) Usually foods high in saturated fats are solid at room temperature

In foods that are composed largely of saturated fat and little else (i.e. little carbohydrates, protein or water content), the clues that it contains saturated fat are in its consistency. Butter, lard, cocoa butter and coconut oil are all solid at average room temperature.  However it is not a rule that saturated fats are always solid at room temperature. Short chain fatty acids for example are liquid at room temperature and it is only the medium and long chains that are solid.

When saturated fats are mixed into food, and are diluted with water and other food molecules, their solid-like state is far harder to detect. It is however often part of what thickens creamy desserts, sauces, pates, spreads and ice cream, and what gives chocolate, cheese, nut butters, cookies, and creamy candies their firmness. Not everything that is firm and hard however is a sign of saturated fat. For example crunchy vegetables are extremely low in fat. Perhaps a good indicator of saturated fat is a thick firmness together with a creamy texture.

b.) Usually if you’re eating animal flesh, it’s safe to say it contains saturated fat

All animals are made up of carbohydrates, proteins and fat amongst other building blocks. Saturated fats are very common in animals, making up 10-40% of the fat content. Any fat that comes from an animal, including milk fat and meat fat, contains saturated fats. Even fish and fish oil, usually touted for their high omega 3 levels, contain some saturated fat.

Although virtually all animal products contain saturated fat to some degree, some non-animal foods also contain saturated fats. The most common of these are the tropical oils, namely coconut oil (aka coconut butter) and palm oil (aka palm butter), and also cocoa butter. Nuts also contain some saturated fats, though in far lower levels.

For an ordered list of foods that are highest in saturated fat, you can click here: Saturated Fats in Foods: A Saturated Fat Food List

c.) Usually saturated fats are insoluble in water

For those who like playing with their food, if you chuck a knob of butter in a glass of water, you’ll notice that it floats on top when solid or when melted. This is because most fats are insoluble in water (as well as being less dense than water). Having said that, short chain fatty acids are small enough to be soluble in water.

Saturated Fats in Food: How can I find out exactly how much saturated fat is in my food?

For those of you who like a hard paper copy to rifle through rather than an internet search you can buy a copy of McCance and Widdowson’s The Composition of Foods

Otherwise, the best place you can go online to check out the saturated fat content of your food is the USDA’s National Nutrient Database which can be found here.

Type in the food you’re interested in, e.g. “haddock”, and click submit. The database will give you a list of foods similar to your entry, and you can choose the form of the food that matches your query most closely. E.g. “Fish, haddock, cooked, dry heat”. When the food composition comes up, scroll down to “Lipids” and “Fatty acids, total saturated”.  This gives you the total amount of saturated fat in the food. For example the haddock entry has 0.111g saturated fat in 100g of fish. You’ll notice that below “Fatty acids, total saturated” in the table, are a bunch of numbers: e.g. 4:0, 6:0, 8:0 etc. These numbers relate to the chain length of the fatty acid.

4:0 has 4 carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain (and the zero denotes that it has zero “spare” bonds. Ie. It denotes that the fat is saturated).
6:0 has 6 carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain.. and so on.

Seeing what type of chain-length saturated fat is in your food becomes important when looking at the hot topic of which saturated-fat-foods are bad for your health. By the time you finish reading this four part article, you should be able to tell which saturated-fat-foods are good or bad for you yourself by looking at the amount of different chain-lengths of fatty acids in your food.

Click here for part 2 of this article series which discusses why some saturated fats are good for you: Benefits of saturated fats.

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As seen in part 1 of this article series (What is saturated fat?), there are many different types of saturated fatty acids with varying chain lengths and as seen in part 2 of this article series (benefits of saturated fats), they each have slightly different benefits. It seems reasonable to reason that they each would also have varying negative side effects, and this is indeed what we find.

Negative aspects of the Short-chain saturated fatty acids

The shortest chain fatty acids are most acidic, with acetic acid (2:0) being the most acidic, which makes sense as it is the main fatty acid component of vinegar. The acidic nature of acetic acid in food when eaten in normal contexts is considered harmless. Having said that, it’s not advisable to glug undiluted vinegar down on its own as it can have acid-corrosive effects on tooth enamel, and may burn and irritate internal tissues and cells. Having it in moderation as part of a salad dressing, sauce, or diluted in water should be fine though.

To the best of my knowledge, there appear to be no negative effects from eating propionic (3:0), butyric (4:0) or caproic (6:0) acid in foods. There are only positive effects. (see link for the benefits of these saturated fats)

Negative aspects of the Medium-chain saturated fatty acids

Caprylic acid (8:0) doesn’t really have many negative side effects other than having a rancid taste which can sometimes cause nausea and gastrointestinal upset. Some people are more sensitive to caprylic acid than others. If used as an antimicrobial, the killing off of microbes can lead to what naturopaths call a “healing crisis” where the death of microbes can release chemicals into the body which can lead to headaches, nausea and other unpleasant symptoms. Working alongside a naturopath can help prepare your body before and after caprylic acid treatment to minimize negative side effects of the healing crisis. Another word of warning is that when using caprylic acid to fight gut microbes, people with a sensitive gut wall (e.g. people prone to inflammatory gut diseases like ulcerative colitis) may find that the killing off of microbes flares up inflammation. In such cases, caprylic acid should be used with caution, if at all. Aside from these effects there are no other known negative effects of caprylic acid.

There are no known negative effects of Capric acid (10:0) to health.

Lauric acid (12:0) has very few negative side effects. The only disadvantage of lauric acid is that as well as raising the “good cholesterol”, HDL, it also raises LDL cholesterol, the “bad cholesterol”. The LDL rise is small in comparison to other long-chain saturated fatty acids, and the rise is modulated by the equally significant rise of HDL, but it is an LDL rise nonetheless.¹

Data Source: Katan et al. 1994. Effects of fats and fatty acids on blood lipids in humans: an overview, Am J Cli. Nutr.; 60(suppl): lOl7S -22S.

Also, like caprylic acid, the antimicrobial effects of lauric acid may result in a minor healing crisis if not used properly.

Negative aspects of the Long-chain saturated fatty acids

The long-chain saturated fats are those which have given saturated fats a bad name. Most of the long-chain saturated fats increase LDL cholesterol, increase risk of cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis.

Myristic acid (14:0) raises LDL more than any other saturated fat, as can be seen in the graph above.^2,3 Although it also raises HDL, the LDL rise is far greater, so the net effect on blood cholesterol is certainly a negative one that increases risk of cardiovascular disease.^2,3
Other negative health effects of myristic acid are that several studies have found possible association between high myristic acid consumption and an elevation in risk of developing prostate cancer.^4,5,6

Like myristic acid, palmitic acid (16:0) also raises LDL far more significantly than it raises HDL (see the graph above), and is therefore a risk factor for heart disease too.^2,7
Palmitic acid has been associated with other negative impacts on health including increasing the risk of diabetes type 2⁸, and it may play a role in suppressing our satiety control which tells us when to stop eating, which means it may play a role in contributing to weight gain.⁹
Worryingly, palmitic acid is the number 1 most abundant saturated fat in foods, which explains why the sweeping generalization that “saturated fats are bad for you” arose. Considering that palmitic acid is the dominant saturated fat in virtually all foods that contain saturated fats, it is fairly safe to say that few such foods that are rich in saturated fats are completely good for you although some may have some benefits as well as the simultaneous negative effects. (as discussed in benefits of saturated fats).

Perhaps surprisingly, stearic acid (18:0) does not raise LDL, unlike its close family members, palmitic and myristic acid.  As seen in the graph above, it in fact lowers LDL rather than raises it! Like palmitic acid however, stearic acid intake has been correlated with types 2 diabetes risk.⁸

Longer chain fatty acids, longer than 18 carbons, like behenic acid (22:0) are not found in high amounts in food, but behenic acid has been found to increase LDL cholesterol.¹⁰

So what’s the conclusion? Is saturated fat bad for you overall?

Read on to read my Conclusion on Saturated Fats: Is saturated fat bad for you?

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References

1. Denke & Grundy 1992; Am J Clin Nutr November 1992 vol. 56 no. 5 895-898
2. Katan et al 1994.Effects of fats and fatty acids on blood lipids in humans: an overview, Am J Cli. Nutr., 60(suppl):lOl7S-22S. (via http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids2.html)
3. Mensink 1993.Am J Clin Nutr. 53(suppl):711S-714S
4. Männistö  et al. 2003. Fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer in a nested case-control study in male smokers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 12 (12): 1422–8.
5. Crowe et al. 2008. Fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids and risk of prostate cancer in a case-control analysis nested within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 88 (5): 1353–63.
6. Kurahashi et al. 2008. Dairy product, saturated fatty acid, and calcium intake and prostate cancer in a prospective cohort of Japanese men. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 17 (4): 930–7
7. Simon. 1995. Serum fatty acids and the risk of coronary heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology. 142(5):469-476.
8. Wang et al. 2003. Plasma fatty acid composition and incidence of diabetes in middle-aged adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 78(1):91-98.
9. Benoit et al. 2009. Palmitic acid mediates hypothalamic insulin resistance by altering PKC-θ subcellular localization in rodents. J Clin Invest. 2009;119(9):2577–2589
10. Cater et al. 2001. Behenic acid is a cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acid in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 73(1): 41-44.

The answer is: yes. One of the common benefits of saturated fats is that they are very stable and unreactive, and therefore are less prone to creating damaging free radicals in your body. This is good news because free radical damage can go on to cause a cascade of destruction in the body that eventually increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer amongst other conditions. This stability of saturated fats makes saturated fats the best choice of cooking fat, because it is during the application of heat that less stable fats are most prone to free radical production. Taking this into consideration, using a small amount of Coconut Oil or butter in your cooking is definitely preferable to any other unsaturated oils which are more likely to undergo free radical production.

As to the further benefits or dangers of saturated fats, it depends on which particular saturated fat you are talking about. As discussed in “Part 1: What is saturated fat?” of this 4-part article series , saturated fats are a group of fats that can vary in chain-length from 2-carbon-long fatty acid chains, to over 20-carbon-long fatty acid chains, and the effects on health differ greatly depending on the chain length.

It’s always unfair (not to mention untrue!) to generalize and lump all saturated fats together, saying they are all bad for you, or good for you. For this reason, I’ll be discussing the benefits of the individual saturated fats in your food.

Benefits of Short-chain saturated fatty acids

Short-chain and very short-chain saturated fatty acids are those that contain 2-6 carbons in their chains.

• Benefits of Acetic acid (2 carbons, ie 2:0)
  Acetic acid is the shortest chain saturated fatty acid with only 2 carbons in its chain, and it is commonly found in high amounts in vinegar, produced from the fermentation of alcohol. About 4-10% of most vinegars is acetic acid.
  Acetic acid has the following benefits to health:
  - Boosts energy: It can be used as a source of energy. Many of our cells in the gut get their energy from short fatty acids like acetic acid. The energy boost acetic acid gives the gut’s cells helps circulate blood in the gut to aid absorption of food and fluids into our bodies.¹
  - May aid absorption of our food: Acetic acid may help boost absorption of fluids, calcium and magnesium in our gut.^1,5
  - May be beneficial for cardiovascular health: Studies^2,3 have shown that acetic acid can help eliminate cholesterol^3,9, and lower blood triglyceride levels³, as well as lowering blood pressure by inhibiting an enzyme which raises blood pressure, ACE.² All these suggest that acetic acid may be beneficial for heart health.
  - May reduce blood sugar levels and therefore be helpful in management of diabetes and in people with insulin resistance. Studies have found that acetic acid inhibits the enzymatic breakdown of complex sugars into simple sugars, thus reducing the sugar hit from a meal.^2,4
  - May increase feelings of satiety and fullness after a meal⁴ thereby helping to prevent overeating and aiding with weight management.
  - May have mild antimicrobial activity: Since antiquity vinegar has been used to preserve foods, and this is because it has slight antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeasts.⁶
• Benefits of Propionic acid (3 carbons ie 3:0)
  Propionic acid isn’t found in many foods, but is found in fermented foods (e.g. fermented cheeses, particularly Swiss and Emmental cheese and fermented fish sauce); and as an additive (E-number E280) in some foods where it functions as a preservative. ^6,12 It is part of what gives fermented foods their characteristic sharp, sweet smell. If you aren’t familiar with this smell, a similar smell is that of feet and sweat because the presence of propionic acid is partly responsible for these aromas too. Propionic acid isn’t really found in most traditionally considered “high saturated fat foods”, aside from small amounts in some fermented cheeses. Here are some of the benefits of propionic acid:
  - Antimicrobial: Propionic acid has some antimicrobial activity against molds and certain bacteria which is why it is used as a preservative additive in foods, however it is used in small amounts because of its unappealing smell.
  - May aid absorption and gut movement of our food: Like acetic acid, propionic acid feeds the gut cells to give them energy to work, and aids in the absorption of some food molecules.^1,5 It also encourages the muscles of the gut to contract to help food move along and relieve constipation.^1,7
  - May be beneficial for cardiovascular health via the following mechanisms:
  a.) May reduce blood cholesterol: Propionic acid inhibits the body’s production of cholesterol.^8,9,10,11
  b.) May reduce triglyceride level in the blood: Propionic acid appears to be an effective inhibitor of fatty acid synthesis, thus having the potential to reduce blood triglyceride levels.^8,11

• Benefits of Butyric acid (4 carbons ie 4:0)
  Butyric acid is found predominantly in dairy products, especially butter (hence the name, BUTyric acid) and cheeses. Butyric acid is also the substance responsible for the smell of vomit and the not too dissimilar smell of Parmesan cheese. Butyric acid need not only be obtained through the diet because it can be made by the body. Eating fibre helps the body make its own butyric acid because gut bacteria break down fibre into butyric acid. The same is also true of propionic acid and acetic acid. In spite of its unfortunate smell, butyric acid does have several benefits to health:
  - Helps in absorption of certain food molecules: Like propionic and acetic acid, butyric acid may also play a role in helping to ensure good absorption of food particles.
  - Helps produce protective mucus in the gut: The gut wall is coated with mucus to protect it from abrasion with food particles, and from chemical corrosion from the acidic stomach contents. Where the gut is already inflamed and abraded from inflammatory bowel conditions like ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, butyric acid can help produce this protective layer to reduce irritation and inflammation.^{1, 13, 14, 15,} Butyric acid may also alleviate gut inflammation through encouraging production of other anti-inflammatory chemicals in the body.¹⁶
  The use of butyric acid in producing protective mucus can be beneficial for people with “leaky gut”, or intestinal permeability. By providing a protective mucus layer, it gives more time for the gut wall to heal if it has been abraded. Not only that, but butyric acid also encourages intestinal cell growth so that it helps them repair if there has been damage to the gut wall. Butyric acid is the main source of food and energy for gut cells.
  Because of these beneficial uses, butyric acid is sold as a supplement by companies like Biotics Research (Product: Butyric-Cal-Mag), Pharmax (Product: Butyrate Complex) and BodyBio (Product: Cal Mag Butyrate).
  - Helps protect against colon cancer: By maintaining good health of the gut cells, many studies have found that butyric acid helps reduce the risk of developing colon cancer significantly.^17,18,19 Butyric acid promotes healthy intestinal cell growth whilst inhibiting the growth of cancerous cells in the gut.¹⁷
  - May inhibit cholesterol production: Like its shorter chain cousins, butyric acid also decreases cholesterol levels in the body.^{9, 20}
  
• Benefits of Caproic acid (6 carbons ie 6:0)
  Caproic acid is found predominantly in butter, but also in smaller amounts in cheese, coconut fat and licorice. It smells a bit like a goat-shed and is found also in goat’s cheese, hence the name caproic acid, where “Capra” or “Caper” is the Latin name for goat. (It’s where the word “Capricorn” also comes from).
  The benefits of caproic acid are not well studied.

Benefits of Medium-chain fatty acids

Medium-chain fatty acids generally contain between 8-12 carbons in their chains.

• Benefits of Caprylic acid (8 carbons ie 8:0)
  Like caproic acid, caprylic acid is also named after the goat due to its smell and high prevalence in goat’s cheese. Aside from goat cheese, caprylic acid is also found in high amounts in coconut fat, palm kernel oil, butter, cheese, and some herbs like sage.
  Benefits of caprylic acid:
  - Antimicrobial: The most well-researched benefit of caprylic action is its use in eliminating certain bacteria, viruses, yeasts and fungi.^21-27 There is no doubt that caprylic acid has antimicrobial effects, however the strength of these effects are under debate amongst researchers. Studies so far have produced varying results. In my opinion, it may be beneficial to include it alongside other antimicrobial protocols if you’re trying to get rid of some bugs in your system, to hit ‘em from all angles.
  - Other possible benefits that require more research: Caprylic acid has also been used for other beneficial uses like dissolving gallstones²⁸, affecting appetite and treating ulcerative colitis, but more studies need to be done in these areas.
• Benefits of Capric acid (10 carbons ie 10:0)
  Capric acid shares with caprylic and caproic acid it’s goatish associations, and again, is found in high amounts in goat’s cheese, as well as in other cheeses, coconut oil, palm kernel oil and sage.
  Benefits of capric acid:
  - Antimicrobial: Like caprylic acid, capric acid is also a known antimicrobial, helping to fight fungi^31,32 and other microorganisms^33,34.
  - Other possible benefits in need of more research: Some studies indicate capric acid may be good for cardiovascular health because it helps relax blood vessels^29,30 but more research is needed to fully confirm this benefit. 

• Benefits of Lauric acid (12 carbons ie 12:0)
  Lauric acid is named after the laurel leaf (better known as the bay leaf) because this was the first plant from which this saturated fat was isolated. However, lauric acid is more abundant in palm kernel oil, coconut oil, butter and cheese than in bay leaves.
  Benefits of lauric acid:
  - Antimicrobial: There is a bit of a running theme amongst the medium-chain saturated fatty acids in that they all have antimicrobial action. Studies have found that lauric acid can fight bacteria^35,36,, fungi³⁷, and viruses³⁸. This may be beneficial for a wide range of conditions including bacterial acne, overgrowth of gut pathogens, and ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori.
  - Raises HDL: Upon first glance, it appears that lauric acid increases cholesterol levels. A closer look at the data reveals that although it does increase cholesterol, it increases the “good cholesterol”, HDL as well as the “bad cholesterol”, LDL. Some studies have suggested that lauric acid may help reduce cardiovascular risk through its HDL boosting effects.^{39, 40,41} This benefit of lauric acid is slightly controversial because of concurrent LDL boosting.

Benefits of Long-chain fatty acids

The long-chain fatty acids are generally 14 or more carbons long. They nearly always make up the largest proportion of saturated fat in food, with one or two exceptions (coconut oil being one such exception where the medium-length fatty acid, lauric acid is the main saturated fat). Here are the benefits of each of the long-chain fatty acids.

• Benefits of myristic acid (14 carbons, ie 14:0): Myristic acid which is found largely in coconut oil, fish oil, cheese, butter, nut oils and meat, has general uses in maintaining cell function and increases the good cholesterol, HDL, slightly, although it also increases the bad cholesterol, LDL (and it raises LDL more than it raises HDL, so overall it’s not advantageous for someone with high cholesterol).
• Benefits of palmitic acid (16 carbons, ie 16:0): Palmitic acid is the number 1 most abundant saturated fat in foods, and is found in palm oil, cocoa butter, dairy butter, cheese, nuts, coconuts, seed oils, nut oils, olive oil, sunflower oil and margarine to name but a few.
  Palmitic acid has a structural role in cells, forming part of cell membranes and acting as the precursor to other fats and fatty molecules that are made by the body. Perhaps due to its very functional role, it is usually the dominant saturated fatty acid in food, making up 60-70% of the saturated fat composition of animal fats and about 40% of the saturated fat composition of dairy fats.
  Palmitic acid is also one of the body’s “energy storage” molecules which is useful in times of famine and starvation.
  Although it appears that these functions are beneficial, other fatty acids can be converted into palmitic acid, so much like the other saturated fats it’s not essential to eat it, although it is impossible to avoid due to its high prevalence.
• Benefits of stearic acid and longer saturated fats (18+ carbons): These are found in lard, animal fats, cocoa, cocoa butter, butter, margarine, various vegetable oils, fish, nut and seed oils, and nuts. Cocoa products are one food group where stearic acid (18:0) makes up the dominant saturated fat component.
  These long-chain saturated fatty acids have some functional uses in the body’s metabolism, including the production of all sorts of fatty molecules that the body needs to build cell membranes and various biochemicals. Stearic acid also helps form a fat energy storage for times of famine and starvation.
  Like palmitic acid, these longer chain fatty acids can be made by the body from shorter chain fatty acids if necessary so are not essential in the diet. These long saturated fatty acids don’t really have many benefits aside from their mundane body functions.

The long-chain saturated fatty acids are better known for their negative side effects than their positive ones. The negative side effects of the saturated fatty acids will be discussed in the next article: Saturated fats: Why saturated fats are bad.

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References

1. Topping. 1996. Short-chain fatty acids produced by intestinal bacteria. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 5:15-19
2. Ogawa et al 2000. Acetic acid suppresses the increase in disaccharidase activity that occurs during culture of caco-2 cells. Journal of Nutrition. 130(3):507-513
3. Fushimi et al. 2006. Dietary acetic acid reduces serum cholesterol and triacylglycerols in rats feda cholesterol-rich diet. British Journal of Nutrition. 95(5):916-924.
4. Ostman et al. 2005. Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr.
5. Lutz. 1990. Effects of short chain fatty acids and K on absorption of Mg and other cations by the colon and caecum. Z Ernahrungswiss. 29(3):162-168.
6. Belitz, Grosch & Schieberle. 2009. Food Chemistry. Springer.
7. Yajima. 1985. Contractile effect of short-chain fatty acids on the isolated colon of the rat. Journal of Physiology. 368:667-668
8. Demigne et al. 1995. Effect of propionate on fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis and on acetate metabolism in isolated rat hepatocytes. Br J Nutr. 74(2):209-219
9. Hara et al. 1999. Short-chain fatty acids suppress cholesterol synthesis in rat liver and intestine. Journal of Nutrition. 129(5):942-948
10. Henningsson. 2002. Content and distribution of short-chain fatty acids in the hindgut of rats fed various sources of indigestible carbohydrates. J Nutr. 132(10):3098-3104
11. Wright et al. 1990. Propionate inhibits hepatocyte lipid synthesis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 195(1):26-29
12. Lee et al 2010. Naturally occurring propionic acid in foods marketed in South Korea . Food Control Volume 21, Issue 2, February 2010, Pages 217-220
13. Scheppach, et al. 1992. Effect of butyrate enemas on the colonic mucosa in distal ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology. 103(1):51-56
14. Scheppach. 1996. Treatment of distal ulcerative colitis with short-chain fatty acid enemas. A placebo-controlled trial. German-Austrian SCFA Study Group. Dig Dis Sci. 41(11):2254-2259.
15. Head et al. 2004. Inflammatory bowel disease. Part II: Crohn’s disease – pathophysiology and conventional and alternative treatment options. Alternative Medicine Review. 9(4):360-401
16. Segain et al. 2000. Butyrate inhibits inflammatory responses through NFkappaB inhibition: implications for Crohn’s disease. Gut. 47(3):397-403.
17. Vanhoutvin et al. 2009. Butyrate-induced transcriptional changes in human colonic mucosa. PloS one 4 (8): e6759
18. Avivi-Green et al. 2002. Different molecular events account for butyrate-induced apoptosis in two human colon cancer cell lines. Journal of Nutrition. 132(7):1812-1818
19. Hinnebusch et al. 2002. The effects of short-chain fatty acids on human colon cancer cell phenotype are associated with histone hyperacetylation. Journal of Nutrition. 132(5):1012-1017
20. Han et al. 2003. Resistant starches of beans reduce the serum cholesterol concentration in rats. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol. 49(4):281-286
21. Nair et al. 2005. Antibacterial effect of caprylic acid and monocaprylin on major bacterial mastitis pathogens. J Dairy Sci 88 (10): 3488–95.
22. Erasmus. 1993. Fats that Heal, Fats that Kill. Alive Books, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
23. Amalaradjou et al. 2006. Inactivation of escherichia coli O157:H7 in cattle drinking water by sodium caprylate.. J Food Prot.Sep;69(9):2248-52
24. Van Immerseel et al. 2004. Medium-chain fatty acids decrease colonization and invasion through hilA suppression shortly after infection of chickens with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004;70(6):3582-7
25. Chang et al. 2010. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. on alfalfa seeds by caprylic acid and monocaprylin.Int J Food Microbiol. Nov 15;144(1):141-6.
26. Solis de los Santos et al. 2009. The natural feed additive caprylic acid decreases Campylobacter jejuni colonization in market-aged broiler chickens. Poult Sci. Jan;88(1):61-4.
27. Skrivanová et al. 2008. Effects of caprylic acid and triacylglycerols of both caprylic and capric acid in rabbits experimentally infected with enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O103. Jan 25;126(4):372-6. Epub 2007 Jul 14.
28. Abate & Moore. 1985 . Monooctanin use for gallstone dissolution. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 19:708-713.
29. White et al. 1991. Identification of capric acid as a potent vasorelaxant of human basilar arteries. Stroke. Apr;22(4):469-76.
30. White et al. 1991. Capric acid as a potent dilator of canine vessels in vitro and in vivo. Gen Pharmacol. 1991;22(4):741-8.
31. Murzyn et al. 2010. Capric acid secreted by S. boulardii inhibits C. albicans filamentous growth, adhesion and biofilm formation. PLoS One. 2010 Aug 10;5(8):e12050.
32. Chadeganipour et al. 2001. Antifungal activities of pelargonic and capric acid on Microsporum gypseum. Mycoses. 2001 May;44(3-4):109-12.
33. Thormar et al. 2006. Stable concentrated emulsions of the 1-monoglyceride of capric acid (monocaprin) with microbicidal activities against the food-borne bacteria Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella spp., and Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006 Jan;72(1):522-6.
34. Enig. 2002. The health-supporting benefits of coconuts. Nexus. 9(2):13-18.
35. Skrivanova, et al. 2005. Susceptibility of Clostridium perfringens to C-C fatty acids. Lett Appl Microbiol. 41(1):77-81
36. Petschow et al. 1996. Susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori to bactericidal properties of medium-chain monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 40(2):302-306
37. Kabara, J. J. Health oils from the tree of life (nutritional and health aspects of coconut oil).
38. Issacs et al. 1994. Inactivation of enveloped viruses in human bodily fluids by purified lipids. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 724:457-464
39. Mensink et al. 2003. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77 (5): 1146–1155.
40. Micha et al. 2010. Saturated fat and cardiometabolic risk factors, coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes: a fresh look at the evidence. Lipids. Oct; 45(10):893-905. Epub 2010 Mar 31.
41. Thijssen & Mensink. 2005. Fatty Acids and Atherosclerotic Risk. In Arnold von Eckardstein (Ed.) Atherosclerosis: Diet and Drugs. Springer.